THE  LIBRARY 

OF 

THE  UNIVERSITY 
OF  CALIFORNIA 

LOS  ANGELES 


GIFT  OF 

Professor 
John  Freeman  Bovard 


CIRCULARS  OF  INFORMATION 


OF  THE 


BUREAU  OF  EDUCATION 


No.   5-1885 


PHYSICAL  TRAINING  IN  AMERICAN  COLLEGES  AND  UNIVERSITIES. 

BY   EDWARD    MUSSEY   HAETWELL,   Pn.D.,   M.D., 

OF  JOHNS  HOPKINS  UNIVERSITY. 


WASHINGTON: 

GOVERNMENT   PRINTING  OFFIOE. 
1886. 

5068— No.  5 


Library 


H- 


CONTENTS. 


PAGE. 

Letter  of  the  Commissioner  of  Education  to  the  Secretary  of  the  Interior 5 

Ideals  of  manly  excellence 7 

Systems  of  physical  training 9 

Introduction  of  gymnastics  into  America 21 

Condition  of  physical  training  in  America  prior  to  the  introduction  of  the  "new 

gymnastics" 25 

The  new  gymnastics 26 

Opening  of  the  era  of  huilding  gymnasia  in  colleges 29 

Department  of  physical  training  at  Amherst  College 30 

College  gymnasia  built  since  1860 39 

Dr.  Sargent's  developing  appliances 44 

Number  and  cost  of  college  gymnasia  buildings  in  the  United  States 59 

Descriptions  of  the  principal  gymnasia 68 

Young  Men's  Christian  Association  gymnasia 87 

Architects  and  furnishers  of  gymnasia 92 

Military  drill  and  discipline  a  physical  training 92 

Athletic  sports  in  the  United  States 106 

Concerning  play-grounds 112 

The  Yale  system  of  athletics 115 

Professionalism  and  intercollegiate  contests 124 

Physical  education  for  scholastic  women 132 

Instruction  in  hygiene 135 

Concluding  remarks  and  suggestions 152 

APPEKDIX. 

Physioal  training  in  Germany 157 


531 


775135 


LETTER. 


DEPARTMENT  OF  THE  INTERIOR, 
t  BUREAU  OF  EDUCATION, 

Washington,  D.  C.,  October  24,  1885. 

SIR  :  In  spite  of  the  frequent  reference  among  educators  and  in  edu- 
cational literature  to  the  fact  that  all  education  should  aim  at  producing 
a  sound  mind  in  a  healthy  body,  it  is  well  known  that  this  important 
truth  is  too  often  forgotten  by  school  officers ,  teachers,  and  parents. 
Generally  in  American  rural -schools,  and  too  often  in  our  city  schools, 
the  conditions  requisite  to  health  are  ignored.  Too  frequently  school- 
houses  are  unhealthy  in  their  location,  their  surroundings,  or  internal 
arrangements. 

Beyond  the  instruction  in  hygiene  the  main  attempts  to  conserve 
health  in  the  public  schools  have  consisted  in  introducing  German 
gymnastics,  or  in  paying  a  more  careful  attention  to  the  laws  of  heating 
and  lighting  and  the  supply  of  pure  air  and  water.  Sometimes  the  in- 
troduction of  manual  labor  has  been  looked  upon  as  the  sure  prevention 
of  all  disease ;  athletic  sports  have  been  tried ;  and  recently  more  careful 
attention  has  been  given  to  the  whole  subject,  especially  in  connection 
.with  our  colleges.  TheJLing  system  of  gymnastics  is  received_withjn- 
creasing  favor.  More  and  monTBelfeve  that  the  best  physical  training 
will  not  aim  to  make  either  acrobats  or  athletes,  but  to  promote  health 
of  body  and  mind.  The  efforts  of  Prof.  Edward  Hitchcock  at  Amherst 
College  and  of  Dr.  D.  A.  Sargent  at  Harvard  have  been  attended  with 
most  beneficial  results,  and  serve  to  greatly  increase  the  care  of  the 
health  of  college  students.  . 

The  number  of  gymnasia  of  merit  has  greatly  increased.  Calls  for 
a  report  upon  this  new  development  in  physical  training  have  been 
urgent  and  frequent.  I  have  therefore  employed  E.  M.  Hartwell,  M.D., 
Ph.D.,  to  collect  the  information  accessible  and  prepare  a  report  upon 
the  subject.  His  report  is  contained  in  the  following  pages,  which  are 
recommended  for  publication.  If  our  colleges  and  universities  can  lead 
the  way  in  devising  and  establishing  the  best  hygienic  training,  their 
example  will  soon  affect  favorably  all  other  grades  of  instruction. 

I  have  the  honor  to  be,  very  respectfully,  your  obedient  servant, 

JOHN  EATON, 

Commissioner. 

The  Hon.  SECRETARY  OF  THE  INTERIOR. 

Publication  authorized. 

H.  L.  MULDEOW, 

Acting  Secretary. 
533 


PHYSICAL  TRAINING  IN  AMERICAN  COLLEGES  AND 

UNIVERSITIES. 


IDEALS  OF  MANLY  EXCELLENCE. 

Philosophical  speculations  regarding  the  nature  and  future  of  man's 
body  and  soul  underlie  and  determine  all  our  schemes  and  endeavors 
for  the  nurture  and  training  of  youth.  There  appear  to  be  four  prin- 
cipal ideals  of  manly  excellence,  which,  singly  or  in  combination,  have 
dominated  the  minds  of  the  promoters  and  governors  of  educational 
foundations,  and  in  accordance  with  which  physical  training  has  been 
favored,  tolerated,  neglected,  or  contemned.  We  may  characterize 
these  ideals  broadly  as  the  Greek  or  aesthetic,  the  monkish  or  ascetic, 
the  military  or  knightly,  and  the  medical  or  scientific. 

The  first  three  have  been  influential  in  varying  degrees  from  very  early 
times.  The  fourth,  although  compounded  of  ancient  elements,  is  so 
strongly  tinged  with  utilitarian  and  psycho-physical  ideas  that  it  is  best 
described  as  modern.  All  of  these  ideals  are  traceable  to  conceptions 
of  human  nature  and  destiny  which  may  be  roughly  classed  under  the 
two  heads  of  lugubrious  and  cheerful. 

THE  GREEK  EDEAI,. 

The  Greek  ideal,  it  is  needless  to  say,  was  not  lugubrious.  "Every- 
thing that  is  good,"  says  Plato  in  the  "Timseus,"  "is  fair,  and  the  fair  is 
not  without  measure,  and  the  animal  who  is  fair  may  be  supposed  to 
have  measure.  Now  we  perceive  lesser  symmetries  and  comprehend 
them,  but  about  the  highest  and  greatest  we  have  no  understanding; 
for  there  is  no  symmetry  greater  than  that  of  the  soul  to  the  body.  This, 
however,  we  do  not  perceive,  nor  do  we  allow  ourselves  to  reflect  that 
when  a  weaker  or  lesser  frame  is  the  vehicle  of  a  great  and  mighty  soul, 
or,  conversely,  when  a  little  soul  is  encased  in  a  large  body,  then  the 
whole  animal  is  not  fair,  for  it  is  defective  in  the  most  important  of  all 
symmetries;  but  the  fair  mind  in  the  fair  body  will  be  the  fairest  and 
loveliest  of  all  sights  to  him  who  has  the  seeing  eye." 

Well  might  Charles  Kingsley  say  of  the  Greeks,  "To  produce  health, 
that  is,  harmony  and  sympathy  and  grace,  in  every  faculty  of  mind  and 
body,  was  their  notion  of  education." 

535 


8  CIRCULARS    Of    INFORMATION   FOR 

The  antithesis  between  the  Greek  and  the  ascetic  ideals  is  clearly 
indicated  in  a  remark  of  Apuleius  concerning  Egyptian  and  Greek 
modes  of  worship.  "The  Egyptian  deities,"  he  says,  "  were  chiefly  hon- 
ored by  lamentations,  and  the  Greek  divinities  by  dances." 

THE  MONKISH  IDEAL. 

The  ideal  of  the  monk,  which,  after  the  first  few  centuries  of  the 
Christian  Church,  exercised  such  a  profound  influence  upon  European 
thought  and  life,  was  of  Asiatic  and,  to  a  considerable  extent,  of  Egyp- 
tian origin.  "The  duty  of  a  monk,"  said  St.  Jerome,  "is  not  to  teach, 
but  to  weep."  Weeping  and  self-torture  might  well  absorb  the  energies 
of  men  who  conceived  that  all  flesh  was  the  creation  of  Satan,  and  cham- 
pioned the  belief  that  soul  and  body  are  independent  and  mutually 
antagonistic  entities. 

When  it  was  held  that  "the  greatest  of  all  evils  was  pleasure,  because 
by  it  the  soul  is  nailed  or  riveted  to  the  body,"  and  that  mental  and 
spiritual  health  were  best  subserved  by  bodily  weakness,  we  cannot 
wonder  that  "a  hideous,  sordid,  and  emaciated  maniac,"  to  borrow 
the  words  of  Lecky,  "without  knowledge,  without  patriotism,  without 
natural  affection,  passing  his  life  in  a  long  routine  of  useless  and  atro- 
cious self-torture,  and  quailing  before  the  ghastly  phantoms  of  his  de- 
lirious brain,  became  the  ideal  of  the  nations  which  had  known  the 
writings  of  Plato  and  Cicero  and  the  lives  of  Socrates  and  Cato." 

Such  views  as  these,  although  they  were  treated  as  heretical  by  the 
earlier  Fathers  of  the  Christian  Church,  became  accepted  dogmas  of  the 
Church  of  Rome  in  the  Middle  Ages;  and  one  may  hear  similar  doctrines 
far  from  faintly  echoed,  if  he  will  attend  to  the  sermons  of  many  of  the 
Scotch,  English,  and  American  divines  who  have  within  the  last  three 
centuries  striven  to  establish  or  perpetuate  religious  terrorism. 

THE  MILITARY  IDEAL. 

The  military  ideal  of  manliness,  now  existing  side  by  side  with  the 
monkish  ideal,  now  confronting  and  challenging  it,  has  played  a  most 
important  and  conspicuous  part  in  the  education  of  the  sons  of  noble- 
men and  of  gentlefolk.  Herodotus  tells  us  that  the  sons  of  the  Persians, 
from  their  fifth  year  to  their  twentieth,  were  carefully  taught  three 
things  only, — to  ride,  to  draw  the  bow,  and  to  speak  the  truth.  Physical 
training  was  predominant  in  the  education  of  free-born  youth  among 
the  Spartans,  Romans,  and  ancient  Germans :  it  consisted  chiefly  of 
martial  exercises  and  the  chase,  and  its  aim  was  the  formation  of  an 
agile  and  enduring  soldiery.  "  Plaienge  att  weapons  "  formed  a  neces- 
sary part  of  every  gentleman's  education  in  Britain  as  well  as  on  the 
Continent,  even  later  than  the  sixteenth  century. 

"  I  swear  I'd  rather  that  my  son  should  hang  than  learn  letters.  For 
it  becomes  the  sons  of  gentlemen  to  blow  a  horn  nicely,  to  hunt  skill- 

536 


PHYSICAL   TRAINING   IN   AMERICAN   COLLEGES.  9 

fully,  and  elegantly  carry  and  train  a  hawk.  But  the  study  of  letters 
should  be  left  to  the  sons  of  rustics."  These  are  the  words  of  an  Eng- 
lish gentleman,  of  the  time  of  Henry  VIII,  who,  on  hearing  letters 
praised,  "  was  roused  to  sudden  anger  and  burst  out  furiously." 

The  ideal  of  the  Greeks  sprang  from  a  passion  for  beauty  and  har- 
mony, and  a  joyous  sense  of  well-being ;  that  of  the  theologian  and  the 
monk  was  conditioned  on  and  determined  by  a  profound  ignorance  of, 
and  a  bitter  contempt  for,  the  body;  while  that  of  the  soldier  and  the 
knight  owed  its  peculiar  features  to  a  rude  appreciation  of  bodily  force 
and  skill,  gained  from  experience  in  camp  and  field. 

THE  MODERN  IDEAL. 

It  is  not  to  the  generative  vigor  of  any  or  all  of  these  ideals  that  we 
owe  our  modef n  doctrine  of  the  interdependence  of  body  and  mind  ; 
which  doctrine  is  but  vaguely,  if  at  all,  apprehended  by  the  majority 
of  those  who  quote  with  generous  unction  the  time-worn  mens  sana  in 
corpore  sano  line  of  Juvenal,  who  exhorts  men  not  only "t6T«pray for  a 
Tiealthy  mind  in  a  healthy  body,"  but  also  to  "ask  for  a  brave  soul  un- 
scared  by  death."  No :  the  belief  "  that  to  work  the  mind  is  also  to 
work  a  number  of  the  bodily  organs;  that  not  a  feeling  can  arise,  not 
a  thought  pass,  without  a  set  of  concurring  bodily  processes,"  is  the 
child  of  the  scientific  spirit  embodied  in  the  new  physiology  and  the 
new  psychology,  and  was  engendered,  as  we  know,  through  the  labors 
of  Harvey  and  Haller,  Du  Bois-Eeymond,  Miiller,  and  Weber,  Helrn- 
holtz  and  Wundt. 

Mr.  Huxley,  it  may  be  fairly  said,  voices  the  views  of  a  large  and  in- 
creasing number  of  scientific  thinkers  when  he  says : 

That  man,  I  think,  has  had  a  liberal  education  who  has  been  so  trained  in  youth 
that  his  body  is  the  ready  servant  of  his  will,  and  does  with  ease  and  pleasure  all  the 
work  it  is  capable  of;  whose  intellect  is  a  clear,  cold  logic  engine,  with  all  its  parts 
of  equal  strength  and  in  smooth  working  order,  ready,  like  a  steam-engine,  to  be 
turned  to  any  work,  and  spin  the  gossamers  as  well  as  forge  the  anchors  of  the  mind ; 
whose  mind  is  stored  with  a  knowledge  of  the  great  and  fundamental  truths  of  Nat- 
ure and  of  the  laws  of  her  operations;  one  who,  no  stunted  ascetic,  is  full  of  life  and 
fire,  but  whose  passions  are  trained  to  come  to  heel  by  a  vigorous  will,  the  servant  of  a 
tender  conscience;  who  has  learned  to  love  all  beauty,  whether  of  nature  or  of  art,  to 
hate  all  vileness,  and  to  respect  others  as  himself. 

SYSTEMS  OF  PHYSICAL  TRAINING. 

It  would  be  interesting,  did  the  scope  and  limits  of  this  paper  permit 
it,  to  discuss'  fully  and  in  detail  the  means  adopted,  at  different  times 
and  in  various  countries,  to  realize  the  ideals  of  which  we  have  spoken. 
Some  statements  of  a  suggestive  rather  than  of  a  descriptive  nature 
must  suffice. 

537 


10  CmCULARS   OP   INFORMATION   FOR   1885. 

THE   GREEK  SYSTEM. 

In  Guhl  and  Koner's  "The  Life  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans "  we  find  the 
gymnasia  mentioned  first  among  the  public  buildings  of  Greece  because 
they  were  "center-points  of  Greek  life."  The  authors  go  on  to  say: 

Games  and  competitions  in  various  kinds  of  bodily  skill  formed  a  chief  feature  of 
their  religions  festivals.  This  circumstance  reacted  on  both  sculpture  and  architect- 
ure, in  supplying  the  former  with  models  of  ideal  beauty,  and  in  setting  the  task  to 
the  latter  of  providing  suitable  places  for  these  games  to  be  celebrated. 

THE   PALESTRA. 

For  purposes  of  this  kind,  as  far  as  public  exhibition  was  not  concerned,  the  pal- 
aestrae and  gymnasia  served.  In  earlier  times  these  two  must  be  distinguished.  In 
the  pahestra  young  men  practiced  wrestling  and  boxing.  As  these  arts  were  grad- 
ually developed,  larger  establishments,  with  separate  compartments,  became  neces- 
sary. Originally  such  places  were  kept  by  private  persons ;  sometimes  they  consisted 
only  of  open  spaces,  near  a  brook,  if  possible,  and  surrounded  by  trees. 

THE   GYMNASIUM. 

Soon,  however,  regular  buildings,  gymnasia,  became  necessary.  At  first  they  con- 
sisted of  an  uncovered  court  surrounded  by  colonnades,  adjoining  which  lay  covered 
spaces,  the  former  being  used  for  running  and  jumping,  the  latter  for  wrestling.  In 
the  same  degree  as  these  exercises  became  more  developed  and  as  grown-up  men  began 
to  take  an  interest  in  these  youthful  sports,  these  institutions  grew  in  size  and 
splendor. 

Minute  descriptions  of  these  establishments  by  Greek  authors  we  do  not  possess, 
but  the  important  parts  are  known  to  us  from  occasional  remarks,  particularly  in  the 
Platonic  dialogues.  There  we  find  mentioned  the  ephebeion,  where  the  youth  used  to 
practice ;  further,  the  bath,  to  which  belonged  a  dry  sweating  bath  for  the  use  of  both 
wrestlers  and  visitors.  The  apoduterion  was  the  room  for  undressing.  In  another 
room,  the  elaiothesion,  the  oil  was  kept  for  rubbing  the  wrestlers,  and  there  possibly 
this  rubbing  itself  took  place.  In  the  konisterion  the  wrestlers  were  sprinkled  with 
sand,  so  as  to  give  them  a  firmer  hold  on  each  other.  The  sphairisterion  was  destined 
for  games  of  ball,  while  other  passages,  open  or  covered  (collectively  called  dromos), 
were  used  for  practice  in  running,  or  simply  for  walking.  A  particular  kind  of  cov- 
ered passage  were  the  xustoi,  which  had  raised  platforms  on  both  sides  for  the  walkers, 
the  lower  space  between  being  used  by  the  wrestlers. 

Among  the  Doric  tribes,  but  chiefly  in  Sparta,  physical  education  consisted  princi- 
pally in  hardening  the  body  of  the  young  citizen- warrior  against  the  influence  of  pain 
and  exertion ;  among  the  Ionian  tribes,  and  chiefly  at  Athens,  the  harmonious  devel- 
opment of  body  and  soul,  i.  e.,  grace  and  ease  of  bearing  and  demeanor,  were  the 
objects  chiefly  aimed  at.  At  Athens  the  gymnasia  were  public  institutions,  supported 
by  public  or  private  means,  at  which  epheboi  (youths  old  enough  for  military  service) 
and  men  spent  a  part  of  their  day  in  athletic  exercise  and  in  instructive  and  social 
intercourse.  These  were  the  Lukrion,  the  Kunosarges,  the  Akademia,  the  Ptolemaion, 
the  splendid  gymnasium  of  Hadrianns,  and  the  small  gymnasium  of  Hermes.  The 
number  of  palaestrae  at  Athens  was  still  greater.  They  were  all  private  institutes 
kept  by  single  paidotribai,  and  destined  for  the  athletic  education  of  boys  only.  In 
smaller  cities  the  joint  practice  of  youths  and  grown-up  men  in  the  same  locality  was 
frequently  inevitable.  But  it  is  erroneous  to  suppose  that  the  palaestra  was  exclu- 
sively the  resort  of  the  athletai.  The  separation  of  youths  and  men  from  the  boys 
was  desirable,  both  for  moral  and  educational  reasons;  for  the  difficulties  of  the  task 
increased  in  proportion  to  the  age  of  the  aspuant. 
538 


PHYSICAL   TRAINING  IN   AMERICAN   COLLEGES.  11 

THE  GAMES. 

Before  entering  upon  the  single  exercises  we  must  try  to  define  the  three  general 
appellations,  gymnastic,  agonistic,  and  athletic.  The  first  term  comprises  all  kinds  of 
regulated  bodily  exercise  for  the  purpose  of  strengthening  the  body  or  single  limbs. 
The  agonistic  comprises  the  gymnastic  exercises  tending  to  prepare  the  athletai  for  the 
wrestling  matches,  which  formed  an  important  feature  of  the  national  festivities, 
particularly  of  the  games  of  Olympia.  Here  assembled,  invited  by  the  peace  messen- 
gers of  Zeus,  the  delegates  of  empires  and  cities,  not  to  speak  of  crowds  of  enthusias- 
tic spectators  from  the  most  distant  shores.  The  flower  of  Greek  youth  came  up  to 
test  their  skill  in  the  noble  competition  for  the  crown  of  Zeus.  Only  he  whose  untain- 
ted character  and  pure  Hellenic  descent  had  been  certified  was  allowed  to  approach 
the  silver  urn  which  contained  the  lots.  A  previous  training  of  at  least  ten  months 
at  a  Greek  gymnasium  was  further  required  for  obtaining  the  permission  of  taking 
part  in  the  holy  contest. 

The  ethic  purpose  of  gymnastic  art  came  to  be  more  neglected,  when  artificiality 
and  affectation  began  to  prevail.  It  was  then  that  the  noble  art  deteriorated  into  a 
mechanical  profession ;  the  athletic  is  the  later  signification  of  the  term. 

THE  TEACHERS. 

The  teachers  of  gymnastics  among  the  Athenians  were  known  as 
gumnastai  and  paidytribai ;  the  former  having  to  superintend  the  gen- 
eral development  and  training  of  the  body,  while  the  latter  directed  the 
single  exercises.  The  sophronistai  were  responsible  for  the  good  behavior 
of  the  boys.  The  whole  gymnasium  and  all  its  teachers  were  under  the 
charge  of  a  superintendent,  termed  the  gumnasiarchos.  His  position 
was  highly  honorable  and  responsible.  The  principal  exercises  taught 
in  the  palaestra  and  the  gymnasium  were  running,  leaping,  wrestling, 
throwing  the  discus,  throwing  the  spear,  boxing,  and  the  pagTcration,  a 
combination  of  boxing  and  wrestling.  Various  ball  games  were  also  in 
vogue,  and  much  attention  was  given  to  bathing. 

It  resulted  from  the  best  Greek  training  that  Sparta  needed  no  walls 
of  defense  save  the  bodies  of  her  sons,  and  that  Athens  furnished  models 
of  manly  vigor  and  beauty  which  have  been  alike  the  admiration  and  de- 
spair of  sculptors  since  the  days  of  Phidias. 

SYSTEMS  OF  THE  MIDDLE  AGES. 

In  comparison  with  the  comprehensive  and  well  directed  methods  of 
the  Greeks,  the  means  employed  for  the  bodily  training  of  the  would- 
be  priest  or  soldier  seem  crude  and  primitive  in  the  extreme.  In  the 
better  days  of  monachism  it  was  held  that  a  laboring  monk  had  but  one 
devil  to  fear,  while  one  who  had  idle  hands  must  needs  contend  against 
a  legion.  Accordingly  labor  in  the  field,  the  garden,  and  the  vineyard 
became  a  well  recognized  factor  in  the  course  of  training  laid  down  for 
many  of  the  religious  orders,  and  especially  of  the  Benedictines,  the 
champions  and  saviors  of  classical  learning  in  the  west.  Although  the 
ghostly  enemies  of  the  young  gentleman,  or  noble,  were  far  from  being 
ignored,  yet  his  training  was  mainly  directed  toward  rendering  him 
fit  to  encounter  savage  beasts  and  men-at-arms.  The  exercises  and 

539 


12  CIRCULARS    OF    INFORMATION   FOR    1885. 

pastimes  of  the  tilt-yard,  the  village-green,  and  the  bear-pit,  differed 
widely  indeed  from  the  exercises  of  the  palaestra,  the  gymnasium,  and 
the  stadium,  though  not  so  widely  as  from  the  feats  achieved  by  scho- 
lastic and  religious  youth  with  mattock,  spade,  and  pruning-hook. 

BRITISH  USAGES. 

In  view  of  the  kinship  of  American  and  British  schools  and  scholars, 
our  purpose  will  be  best  served  if,  in  the  present  connection,  we  confine 
our  attention  chiefly  to  British  usages  as  regards  scholastic  and  knightly 
training  iu  medieval  and  early  modern  times. 

MEDIEVAL  STUDENT  -LIFE. 

Asceticism  [says  Mullinger,  the  historian  of  the  University  of  Cambridge,  in  his 
chapter  on  mediaeval  student-life],  as  it  was  then  the  professed  rule  of  life  with  the 
monk,  the  friar,  and  the  secular,  was  also  the  prevailing  theory  in  the  discipline  of 
those  whom  they  taught  and  trained  for  their  several  professions.  The  man  fasted, 
voluntarily  bared  his  back  to  the  scourge,  kept  long  and  painful  vigils  ;  the  boy  was 
starved,  flogged,  and  sent  to  seek  repose  where  he  might  find  it  if  he  were  able. 
*  *  *  Lever,  the  master  of  St.  John's,  in  ail  oft-quoted  passage,  describes  the 
scholars  of  his  college,  then  (in  1550)  the  poorest  in  proportion  to  its  number  in  the 
whole  University,  as  going  to  dinner  at  ten  o'clock,  content  with  a  penny  piece  of 
beef,  among  four,  having  a  little  "porage"  made  of  the  broth  of  the  same  beef,  with 
salt  and  oatmeal,  "and  nothing  else."  After  this  slender  dinner,  he  continues,  "they 
be  either  teaching  or  learning  until  five  of  the  clock  in  the  evening,  when  they  have 
a  supper  not  much  better  than  their  dinner.  Immediately  after  the  which  they  go 
either  to  reasoning  in  problems  or  unto  some  other  study,  until  it  be  nine  or  ten  of 
the  clock,  and  then,  being  without  fire,  are  fain  to  walk  or  run  up  and  down  half  an 
hour  to  get  a  heat  in  their  feet  when  they  go  to  bed." 

SPORTS  AND  PASTIMES. 

Of  the  sports  and  pastimes  of  those  days  we  have  little  record;  but  we  know  the 
use  of  the  cross-bow  to  have  been  a  favorite  accomplishment;  cock-fighting,  that 
"last  infirmity"  of  the  good  Ascham,  was  also  a  common  amusement;  while,  from 
certain  college  statutes  requiring  that  "no  fierce  birds"  should  be  introduced  within 
the  precincts  of  the  college,  we  may  infer  that  many  of  the  students  were  emulous  of 
the  falconer's  art.  It  is  not  uninteresting  to  note  that  a  custom  of  the  present  day, 
the  daily  walk  with  a  single  companion,  was  originally  inculcated  by  college  statute, 
while  this  in  turn  is  said  to  have  derived  its  precedent  from  apostolic  example. 

The  statute  referred  to,  dates  from  the  year  1336,  which  was  a  little 
more  than  sixty  years  before  the  founding  of  Winchester  College  by 
William  of  Wykeham,  who  strenuously  and  particularly  forbade — in  the 
statutes  which  he  drew  up  for  the  government  of  his  scholars — pretty 
much  every  kind  of  sport,  whether  it  were  gentlemanly  or  loutish. 

TRAINING  UNDER  HENRY  VIII. 

From  the  letters  of  young  Gregory  Cromwell's  tutor  to  his  pupil's 
father,  the  Earl  of  Essex  and  the  King's  chief  secretary,  we  derive  some 
insight  as  to  the  education  of  a  young  nobleman  of  the  time  of  Henry 
YIII,  at  which  time  it  was  said  that  "  gentlemen  strive  more  to  bring 

540 


PHYSICAL    TRAINING   IN   AMERICAN   COLLEGES.  13 

np  good  hounds  than  wise  heirs."  It  appears  from  the  letters  alluded  to 
that  young  Cromwell  had  "  hours  limited  for  the  French  tongue,  writ- 
ing, playing  at  weapons,  casting  of  accounts,  pastimes  of  instruments," 
and  that  for  his  recreation  he  used  "  to  hawk  and  hunt  and  shoot  in 
his  long  bow." 

Henry  VIII  strove  to  foster  the  practice  of  martial  exercises  through- 
out the  realm.  We  are  told  of  his  "  continuing  daily  to  amuse  himself 
in  archery,  casting  of  the  bar,  wrestling,  or  dancing,  and  frequently  in 
tilting,  tourneying,  fighting  at  the  barriers  with  swords  and  battle-axes, 
and  such  like  martial  recreations,  in  most  of  which  there  were  very  few 
who  could  excel  him." 

LAWS  REGARDING  ARCHERY. 

He  caused  Parliament  to  enact,  in  1511,  that  "  every  man  being  the 
King's  subject,  not  lame,  decrepit,  or  maimed ;  being  within  the  age  of 
sixty  years,  except  spiritual  men,  justices  of  the  one  bench  and  of  the 
other,  justices  of  the  assize,  arid  barons  of  the  exchequer,  do  use  and 
exercise  shooting  in  long  bows,  and  also  do  have  a  bow  and  arrows 
ready  continually  in  his  house,  to  use  himself  in  shooting;  and  that 
every  man  having  a  man  child  or  men  children  in  his  house  shall  pro- 
vide for  all  such,  being  of  the  age  of  seven  years  and  above,  a  bow  and 
two  shafts,  to  learn  them  and  bring  them  up  in  shooting."  Each  village 
was,  in  1541,  required  to  maintain  a  pair  of  archery  butts.  It  would 
seem  that  this  statute  was  held  to'apply  to  school-boys  and  collegians ; 
for,  while  it  is  provided  in  the  ordinances  of  Shrewsbury  school,  made 
by  the  authorities  of  the  town  in  1578,  that  the  "  schollers  shall  plaie 
upon  thursdaies  onles  there  be  a  holidaye  in  the  weeke  and  no  day  els 
but  .the  thursdaie,"  it  is  prescribed  that  the  "  schollers  plaie  shal  be 
shootinge  in  the  long  bowe  and  chesse  plaie  and  no  other  games  except 
it  be  runninge,  wrastlinge,  or  leapinge."  It  is  also  noteworthy  that  cer- 
tain playgrounds,  at  Eton  and  Harrow  respectively,  are  still  termed 
«<  The  Shooting  Fields"  and  "  The  Butts." 

It  is  not  safe,  however,  to  infer  from  enactments  like  the  above  that 
systematic  physical  training,  even  in  the  single  particular  of  archery, 
was  ever  generally  enforced  in  English  schools  and  colleges.  System 
and  compulsion  in  such  matters  have  ever  been  contemned  both  by 
teachers  and  pupils. 

Roger  Ascham,  in  his  "  Toxophilus,  the  Schole  of  Shootinge,"  pub- 
lished in  1545,  declares  that  "if  shooting  could  speak,  she  would  accuse 
England  of  unkindness  and  slothfulness,"  and  further  states  that  "  very 
many  play  with  the  King's  acts,  *  *  *  many  buy  bows,  because  of 
the  act,  but  yet  shoot  not." 

VIEWS  OF  CARDINAL  POLE. 

Very  few  men  in  England,  during  the  middle  third  of  the  sixteenth 
century,  were  so  well  qualified  to  set  forth  and  criticise  the  educational 

641 


14  CIRCULARS    OF    INFORMATION    FOR    1885. 

methods  of  his  time  as  Eeginald  Pole,  legate  under  Pope  Paul  III,  arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury  in  the  time  of  Queen  Mary,  and  chancellor  both  of 
Oxford  and  Cambridge.  Pole,  who  had  been  educated  at  the  Universi- 
ties of  Oxford,  Paris,  and  Padua,  and  was  on  familiar  terms  with  the 
most  renowned  scholars  of  his  day,  was  a  man  of  eminent  ability  and 
great  independence  of  character.  There  can  be  little  doubt  that  in 
*'  England  in  the  Eeign  of  Henry  VIII.  A  Dialogue  between  Cardinal 
Pole  and  Thomas  Lupset,  Lecturer  in  Rhetoric  in  Oxford.  By  Thomas 
Starkey,  Chaplain  to  the  King,"  the  opinions  of  Pole  regarding  the 
educational  needs  of  England  are  set  forth  with  substantial  accuracy. 

Pole  favors  the  opinion  of  those  who  say  that  "the  weal  of  man 
resteth  not  only  in  the  mind  and  the  virtues  thereof,  but  in  the  body 
also,  and  in  the  prosperous  state  of  the  same,"  as  being  "  very  truth." 

"First  and  most  principal  of  all  ill  customs  used  in  our  country  is 
that  which  toucheth  the  education  of  the  nobility,"  says  Pole,  "  whom 
we  see  customably  brought  up  in  hunting  and  hawking,  dicing  and  card- 
ingj  eating  and  drinking,  and  in  all  vain  pleasure,  pastime,  and  van- 
ity." Pole  is  equally  severe  on  the  education  of  the  "men  of  the 
church,"  who  he  declares  "  are  not  brought  up  in  virtue  and  learning, 
as  they  should  be,  nor  well  approved  therein  before  they  be  admitted 
to  such  high  dignity,  *  *  *  for  commonly  you  shall  find  that  they 
can  nothing  do  but  patter  up  their  matins  and  mass,  mumbling  up  a 
certain  number  of  words  nothing  understood." 

ON  COMPULSORY  EDUCATION  OP  THK  NOBILITY. 

Pole  distinctly  favors  compulsory  education  and  public  schools,  in 
order  to  remedy  the  "ill  customs"  noted  above,  as  may  be  seen  from 
the  following  quotation : 

But  here  is,  Master  Lupset,  not  only  in  our  country,  but  also  in  all  other  which  ever 
yet  I  knew,  a  great  lack  and  negligence  of  them  which  rule  in  common  policy,  and 
that  is  this:  that  in  no  country  there  is  any  regard  of  the  bringing  up  of  the  youth 
in  common  discipline  and  public  exercise.  But  every  man  privately  in  his  own  house 
hath  his  master  to  instruct  his  children  in  letters,  without  any  respect  of  other  exer- 
cise in  other  feats  pertaining  to  nobility  no  less  than  learning  and  letters,  as  in  all 
feats  of  chivalry.  Therefore  there  would  some  ordinance  be  devised  for  the  joining 
of  these  both  together,  which  might  be  done  after  this  manner,  likewise  as  we  have 
in  our  universities,  colleges,  and  common  places  to  nourish  the  children  of  poor  men 
in  letters ;  whereby,  as  you  see,  cometh  no  small  profit  to  the  common  weal. 

So  much  more  we  should  have,  as  it  were,  certain  places  appointed  for  the  bringing 
up  together  of  the  nobility,  to  the  which  I  would  the  nobles  should  be  compelled  to 
set  forward  their  children  and  heirs,  that  in  a  number  together  they  might  the  better 
profit.  And  to  this  company  I  would  have  appointed  rulers  certain  of  the  most  vir- 
tuous and  wise  men  of  the  realm,  the  which  should  instruct  this  youth  to  whom 
should  come  the  governance  after,  of  this  our  common  weal.  Here  they  should  be  in- 
struct, not  only  in  learning  and  virtue,  but  also  in  all  feats  of  war  pertaining  to  such 
as  should  be  hereafter  in  time  of  war  captains  and  governors  of  the  common  sort. 
This  should  be  the  most  noble  institution  that  ever  was  yet  devised  in  any  common 
542 


PHYSICAL    TKAINING   IN   AMEEICAN   COLLEGES.  15 

weal.  Of  this  should  spring  the  fountain  of  all  civility  and  politic  rule ;  yea,  and 
without  such  a  thing  I  can  not  tell  whether  all  the  rest  of  our  deviee  will  little 
avail.  I  think  it  will  never  be  possible  to  institute  our  common  weal  without  this 
ordinance  brought  to  pass  and  put  into  effect. 

Pole's  ideas,  we  need  hardly  say,  were  too  novel  and  theoretical  to  be 
adopted  in  his  day;  and  it  would  be  extremely  difficult  to  realize  them 
in  England  even  in  our  day.  Milton  and  Bacon,  Fuller  and  Locke,  and 
Herbert  Spencer,  have  all  argued  in  favor  of  physical  training,  in  a  strain 
more  or  less  similar  to  that  of  Pole.  But  the  realization  of  their  gener- 
ous theories  has  never  been  widely  and  systematically  undertaken  by 
the  teachers  of  British  youth. 

Athletic  sports,  such  as  boating,  cricket,  and  foot-ball,  have  come  to 
be  highly  prized  and  lauded.  We  are  far  from  denying  their  great  edu- 
cational value,  but  it  is  clear  that  they  owe  their  essential  features 
chiefly  to  the  beliefs  and  customs  of  that  most  uncritical  and  preju- 
diced class  of  conservatives,  the  British  undergraduate,  rather  than  to 
the  schemes  and  endeavors  of  innovating  thinkers  and  reformers.  It 
is  equally  clear  that  innovators  and  dreamers  have  been  largely  influ- 
ential in  quickening  and  determining  the  development  of  modern 
methods,  both  of  physical  and  mental  training,  on  the  Continent  of  Eu- 
rope. As  we  shall  have  occasion  to  point  out  further  on,  physical  train- 
ing in  America  owes  more  to  German  than  to  British  models. 

AMERICAN  IDEAS  AND  CUSTOMS. 

When  we  recall  the  fact  that  our  oldest  American  colleges,  like  their 
early  English  models,  were  established  primarily  to  recruit  with  learned 
men  the  ranks  of  the  clergy,  there  is  left  no  ground  for  wonder  that 
physical  training  has  so  slowly  won  its  way  to  recognition  as  a  necessary 
part  of  a  sound  education.  American  educators  were  long  ruled  by 
British  notions  as  to  curriculum  and  discipline;  the  American  public 
was  mainly  animated  by  narrowly  "practical"  and  utilitarian  ideals; 
and  American  collegians,  who  were  not  too  serious  to  play  at  all,  dis- 
ported themselves  after  inherited  British  fashions  in  their  intervals  of 
study. 

HARVAKD  AND  DARTMOUTH  CUSTOMS. 

The  means  afforded  students  for  recreation  a  hundred  and  fifty  years 
ago  were  decidedly  scanty,  if  we  may  judge  from  the  only  mention  of 
them  in  the  "Ancient  Customs  of  Harvard  College,  Established  by  the 
Government  of  It."  "Custom  16"  runs  as  follows:  "The  Freshmen 
shall  furnish  bats,  balls,  and  foot-balls  for  the  use  of  students,  to  be  kept 
in  the  buttery."  Dartmouth  College,  in  New  Hampshire,  was  founded  in 
1769.  In  a  statement  made  two  years  later  by  its  first  president,  Eev. 
Dr.  Wheelock,  concerning  its  aims  and  methods,  we  find  a  recommenda- 
tion, on  which  the  changes  were  rung  by  college  officers  and  trustees 
for  more  than  fifty  years  in  the  east,  and  whose  echoes*are  still  ringing 
in  the  west.  President  Wheelock  recommended  the  students  to  "turn 

543 


16  CIRCULARS   OF   INFORMATION   FOR   1885. 

the  course  of  their  diversions  and  exercises  for  their  health  to  the  prac- 
tice of  some  manual  arts,  or  cultivation  of  gardens  and  other  lands,  at 
the  proper  hours  of  leisure  and  intermissions  from  study  and  vacancies 
[vacations]". 

VIEWS  OF  DR.  RUSH. 

Dr.  Benjamin  Eush,  of  Philadelphia,  who  was  a  signer  of  the  Decla- 
ration of  Independence,  was  long  the  foremost  teacher  in  the  foremost 
American  medical  college  of  his  day,  that  of  the  University  of  Penn- 
sylvania. Dr.  Oliver  Wendell  Holmes  inclines  to  believe  that  Dr.  Eush 
not  only  gave  direction  to  the  medical  mind  of  the  country  more  than 
any  other  one  man,  but  that  he  "typifies  it  better  than  any  other."  Dr. 
Eush  urged  his  students  "to  turn  nature  out  of  .doors  and  appeal  to 
art,"  and  published  abroad  his  belief  that  "  the  time  must  and  would 
come  when  the  general  use  of  calomel,  jalap,  and  the  lancet  should  be 
considered  among  the  most  essential  articles  of  knowledge  and  the 
rights  of  man."  One  has  but  to  turn  to  Dr.  Eush's  "Essays,  Literary, 
Moral,  and  Philosophical",  to  find  that  his  notions  as  to  artificial  and 
heroic  practice  were  not  confined  to  medical  matters.  Among  these  es- 
says is  one  published  in  1790,  on  the  "Amusements  and  Punishments 
Proper  for  Schools."  Dr.  Eush  voiced  the  prevailing  sentiment  of  his 
time,  and  of  many  of  our  time  as  well,  in  proposing  that  "the  amuse- 
ments of  our  youth  shall  consist  of  such  exercises  as  will  be  most  sub- 
servient to  their  future  employments  in  life."  He  favors  agricultural 
and  mechanical  employments  as  means  of  diversion  and  training,  and 
notes  with  approval  that  "in  the  Methodist  College,  in  Maryland,  a 
large  lot  is  divided  between  the  scholars,  and  premiums  adjudged  to 
those  who  produce  the  most  vegetables  from  their  grounds,  or  who  keep 
them  in  the  best  order."  "  The  Methodists,"  he  adds,  "  have  wisely  ban- 
ished every  species  of  play  from  their  college."  Again  he  says : 

All  the  amusements  of  the  children  of  the  Moravians  at  Bethlehem,  Penn.,  are  de- 
rived from  their  performing  the  subordinate  parts  of  several  of  the  mechanical  arts; 
and  a  considerable  portion  of  the  wealth  of  that  worthy  and  happy  society  ia  the 
product  of  the  labor  of  their  little  hands. 

MANUAL  LABOR  SCHOOLS  AND  TRAINING. 

It  was  in  accordance  with  such  notions  as  those  of  President  Whee- 
lock  and  Dr.  Eush  that  farm,  manual  labor,  and  Fellenberg  schools 
were  founded,  and  societies  for  promoting  manual  labor  in  literary  in- 
stitutions were  organized  somewhat  extensively  in  the  United  States 
during  the  first  third  of  the  present  century. 

In  South  Carolina. 

The  first  of  these  farm-schools  was  that  established  in  1797  at  Lethe, 
in  Abbeville  District,  S.  0.,  in  accordance  with  the  terms  of  the  will  of 
Dr.  John  de  la  Howe,  a  native  of  Hanover,  in  Germany,  who  left  the 
bulk  of  his  estate,  comprising  a  farm  of  500  acres  and  1,000  acres  of 
forest,  for  the  educating,  boarding,  and  clothing  of  twelve  poor  boys 
544 


PHYSICAL    TRAINING    IN   AMERICAN    COLLEGES.  17 

and  twelve  poer  girls  of  Abbeville  District.    The  school  did  not  go  into 
actual  operation  till  twenty  years  later. 

In  Masaachusetts. 

When  Amherst  College  was  founded  at  Amherst,  Mass.,  in  1821,  it 
possessed  at  the  start  "an  advantage  over  all  other  colleges,"  accord- 
ing to  the  Boston  Recorder  published  in  September  of  that  year,  which 
notes  the  purchase  of  "  a  large  field  for  the  express  purpose  of  afford- 
ing each  charity  student  an  opportunity  of  cultivating  a  quarter  or  half 
acre  in  that  manner  which  his  taste  and  judgment  should  dictate." 
While  preparing  this  paper  we  have  been  assured  that  "  ecclesiastical 
students  find  plenty  of  recreation  and  amusement,  either  walking,  work- 
ing in  flower  gardens,  or  riding." 

Tyler's  "History  of  Amherst  College"  states  that  "all  the  earlier  ter- 
races on  College  Hill  were  the  work  of  the  officers  and  students  of 
Amherst  College.  And  every  spring,  for  many  years,  the  students  were 
in  the  habit  of  devoting  one  day  to  raking  off  the  chips  and  clearing  up 
the  grounds."  "  Chip-day "  at  Amherst,  it  is  to  be  remembered,  was 
probably  imported  from  Williams  College,  whence  came  Amherst's  first 
president  and  students.  At  Williams  College,  years  before  and  for 
years  after  the  foundation  of  Amherst,  the  students  had,  in  addition  to 
a  "chip-day,"  a  "mountain-day"  and  a  "gravel-day,"  the  former  being 
devoted  to  tramping,  and  the  latter  to  regraveling  the  college  walks. 
The  Faculty  granted  these  holidays  for  the  purpose  of  "fostering  in  the 
students  the  habits  of  physical  labor  and  exercise  so  essential  to  vigor- 
ous mental  exertion." 

GERMAN  CUSTOMS  AND  THEIR  INFLUENCE. 

-rsPi 

Prior  to  1825,  physical  training,  in  its  proper  sense,  had  no  recogni- 
tion or  standing  in  the  curriculum  of  school  or  college,  if  we  except  the 
United  States  Military  Academy  at  West  Point,  and  one  or  two  insti- 
tutions modeled  on  it.  The  germ  of  such  physical  training  as  exists  at 
present  in  many  of  our  colleges  came  from  abroad,  and  was  planted  by 
German  exiles  in  New  England  soil. 

Among  the  ancient  Germans,  bodily  exercises  were  generally  and 
strenuously  cultivated  for  the  sake  of  training  men  for  war,  the  chase, 
and  the  sacred  games.  In  the  Middle  Ages,  bodily  training  was  re- 
stricted to  military  gymnastics,  and  these  were  largely  monopolized 
by  the  feudal  aristocracy,  none  but  knights  being  allowed  to  take  part 
in  the  tournaments,  whose  origin  is  attributed  to  the  German  King, 
Henry  I.  The  opposition  of  the  Church  and  the  introduction  of  tire- 
arms  finally  brought  about  the  downfall  of  the  chivalric  games. 

VIEWS   OF   THE  REFORMERS. 

Although  the  reformers,  Luther,  Melaucthon,  and  Zwingli,  urged  the 
revival  of  gymnastics  as  a  part  of  the  education  of  all  classes  of  youth, 
0068—2*0,  5 3  545 


18  CIRCULARS    OF    INFORMATION   FOR    1885. 

it  was  not  until  the  last  decades  of  the  last  century  that  any  considera- 
ble attempt  was  made  to  systematize  and  enforce  gymnastic  training  in 
Germany. 

THE  PHILANTHROPISTS. 

The  philanthropists,  who,  as  regards  the  physical  side  of  education, 
were  the  precursous  of  Jahn,  the  father  of  German  Turning,  made  such 
an  attempt  in  the  reformed  courses  of  instruction,  by  means  of  which 
they  strove  to  supplant  the  "old  education"  and  follow  "the  method 
of  nature."  Basedow,  Campe,  Salzmanu,  Guts  Muths,  Pestalozzi,  and 
Fellenberg,  all  gave  physical  training  a  prominent  place  in  the  schools 
which  they  instituted  or  controlled.  In  so  doing,  however,  they  were 
only  following,  and  that  for  the  most  part  consciously,  the  suggestions 
contained  in  Eousseau's  Emile,  which  was  published  in  1762,  and  con- 
tained much  that  seems  but  an  echo  from  the  essays  of  Montaigne,  "On 
the  Education  of  Children  "  and  "On  Pedantry,"  which  appeared  some 
eighty  years  before  the  fimile.  Eousseau's  main  thesis  is  found  in  his 
claim  that  his  "system  is  nature's  course  of  development,"  and  that  "the 
great  secret  of  education  is  to  manage  it  so  that  the  training  of  the 
mind  and  body  shall  serve  to  assist  each  other." 

BASEDOW  AND  THE  PHILANTHROPINUM. 

Basedow,  who  was  born  at  Hamburg  in  1723  and  was  by  nature  an 
innovator,  first  attracted  attention  by  his  controversial  writings  on  the- 
ological subjects.  He  was  incited  to  devote  himself  to  educational  re- 
forms by  reading  fimile,  which  a  recent  writer  characterizes  as  "  perhaps 
the  most  influential  book  ever  written  on  the  subject  of  education." 
In  1774,  Basedow  founded  at  Dessau  his  famous  school,  the  Philanthro- 
pinum,  "in  which,"  says  Von  Eauiner,  "the  views  of  Eousseau  were 
strictly  followed,  and  where  these  views  were  by  every  means  sought 
to  be  introduced  into  actual  life."  Basedow's  division  of  the  day  was 
as  follows :  eight  hours  for  sleep ;  eight  hours  for  food  and  amusement; 
and,  for  the  children  of  the  rich,  six  hours  for  school  work  and  two  for 
manual  labor,  while  the  children  of  the  poor  were  to  have  two  hours 
of  school  work  and  six  of  manual  labor.  His  pupils  in  the  Philanthro- 
pinum  were  taught  wrestling,  running,  riding,  dancing,  besides  car- 
pentry and  wood-turning,  and  were  regularly  taken  on  long  walks 
into  the  country.  They  were  also  instructed  as  to  the  structure  and 
functions  of  the  human  body  by  the  private  physician  of  Prince  Die- 
trich, Basedow's  patron.  With  Basedow  philanthropy  was  indeed  a 
passion  to  the  last.  With  his  dying  breath  he  said,  "  I  wish  my  body 
to  be  dissected  for  the  good  of  my  fellow-creatures." 

It  is  noteworthy  that  Basedow  and  his  immediate  disciples  and  imi- 
tators employed  both  gymnastic  and  industrial  exercises  in  their  efforts 
to  secure  physical  training  to  their  pupils. 

Fellenberg,  at  his  schools  in  Hofwyl,  near  Berne,  in  Switzerland, 
added  military  drill  to  instruction  in  gymnastics  and  handicrafts. 
546 


PHYSICAL    TRAINING   IN   AMERICAN    COLLEGES.  19 

GUTS  MUTHS. 

The  influence  of  the  Greek  ideal  is  clearly  traceable  in  the  writings 
of  Montaigne,  Eousseau,  Basedow,  Guts  Muths,  and  Jahn.  "  In  the 
year  1785,"  says  Guts  Muths,  "  I  entered,  when  still  a  youth,  the  school 
of  Schnepfenthal,  near  Gotha,  and  thereupon  Salzmann,  its  head,  con- 
ducted me  to  a  place  saying,  <  Here  are  our  gymnastics ;  within  this 
little  space  we  amuse  ourselves  daily  with  five  exercises,  though  they 
are  still  only  in  their  rudiments.'  These  exercises  had  been  first  tried 
at  Dessau  where  Salzmann  had  previously  been.  He  soon  intrusted  me 
with  the  direction  of  this  first  beginning  of  exercises.  All  that  I  found 
out  from  ancient  usages,  from  the  historical  remains  of  earlier  and  later 
antiquity,  all  that  reflection  and  sometimes  chance  offered  to  me,  was 
brought  forward  for  the  sake  of  amusing  experiments.  Thus  the  chief 
exercises  increased,  were  subdivided  into  new  forms  and  tasks,  and 
were  subjected  to  rules  often  laid  down  with  great  difficulty.  Thus 
originated,  after  seven  years'  experiments,  in  the  first  edition  of  my 
'Gymnastics  for  the  Young'  (1793),  my  first  attempt  to  call  attention  to 
a  subject  that  had  been  quite  forgotten  and  only  existed  in  history." 
Under  Rector  Vieth,  at  Dessau,  gymnastics  gained  great  popularity 
during  the  very  time  that  Guts  Muths  was  experimenting  at  Schnepfen- 
thal. Guts  Muths'  efforts  met  with  hearty  recognition  in  Germany. 
Nachtigall  in  Denmark,  and  Ling  in  Sweden,  made  systematic  gym- 
nastics popular  and  general  among  their  countrymen.  To  Ling  was 
due  the  development  of  the  system  of  medical  gymnastics  known  as 
the  Swedish  Movement  Cure,  and  also  a  system  of  general  bodily  train- 
ing still  much  prized  in  Sweden  and  Norway. 

JAHN  AND  THE  TURNERS. 

The  extraordinary  progress  made  by  gymnastics  in  Germany  during 
the  first  quarter  of  the  present  century  was  mainly  due  to  the  quicken- 
ing and  organizing  genius  of  Friedrich  Ludwig  Jahn,  known  to  all 
German  Turners  as  "Father  Jahn."  "His  idea,"  says  Schaible  in  his 
"Essay  on  the  Systematic  Training  of  the  Body," 

was  to  unite  the  people  of  Germany  into  one  nation,  intellectually,  morally,  and 
physically  strong  against  the  threatening  enemy  of  the  west.  Boldly  and  vigorously, 
a  real  reformer,  he  advanced  toward  his  high  ideal,  the  realization  of  which  was  at- 
tained with  a  surprising  rapidity,  notwithstanding  the  many  impediments  that  stood 
in  his  way.  The  number  of  his  pupils  increased  daily.  His  ideas  of  a  revived  na- 
tional education  were  in  this  work  ["Deutsche  Turnkunst"]  offered  to  the#nation, 
and  were  enthusiastically  received.  Soon  gymnastics  took  a  national  character. 
Boys,  youths,  and  men  of  all  classes  of  society  took  part  in  the  exercises,  and  gym- 
nasia sprang  up  in  all  parts.  Nor  was  it  long  before  from  their  gymnasia  [in  1813] 
thousands  of  Turners  of  all  ages  rushed  forth  on  a  given  signal  as  volunteers  to  the 
unfurled  standard  of  their  Fatherland,  to  prove,  in  a  deadly  struggle  for  freedom  and 
country,  the  strength  and  self-reliance  which  they  had  acquired  in  the  gymnasium. 
After  the  German  war  of  independence  the  effect  of  gymnastic  training  was  fully 

547 


20  CIRCULARS    OF    INFORMATION    FOR    1885. 

recognized.  On  their  return  from  the  battle-fields  the  gymnasts  went  again  to  their 
work  with  vigorous  zeal.  Gymnastics  had  gained  a  considerable  importance  through 
the  valor  and  endurance  shown  by  the  Turners  during  the  war.  Gymnasia  were  es- 
tablished throughout  Germany,  from  the  primary  school  to  the  university  [sic]. 

In  the  troublous  times  that  followed  the  war  of  independence,  Jahn  and 
the  Turners  were  denounced  as  liberals  and  enemies  to  the  state,  and 
in  1819  the  gymnasia  throughout  Prussia,  and  in  all  Germany  with  the 
exception  of  Wiirtemberg,  were  closed.  Jahn  was  thrown  into  prison 
and  kept  there  until  1825.  He  lived  to  see  gymnastics  introduced  into 
the  schools  in  1842,  and  Turners'  societies  flourishing  all  over  Germany. 
He  died  in  1852  at  the  age  of  seventy -four. 

Gymnastics  for  the  sake  of  securing  a  symmetrical  development  of 
the  bodily  powers  were  not  introduced  into  America  before  1825.  Mili- 
tary drill  was  up  to  that  time  employed  in  only  a  few  institutions,  and 
in  them  mostly  for  professional  purposes.  Educators  in  the  United 
States,  so  far  as  they  made  any  effort  to  provide  for  physical  training, 
did  so  mainly  with  the  view  of  providing  an  outlet  for  what  were  then 
termed  "  animal  spirits,"  or  for  the  purpose  of  decreasing  the  cost  of  an 
education  by  such  means  as  had  been  advocated  by  President  Wheelock 
and  Dr.  Bush. 

FELLENBERG  AND  THE  HOFWYL  SCHOOLS. 

The  attempts  of  Pestalozzi  and  Fellenberg  to  unite  industrial  and  in- 
tellectual training  excited  much  more  interest  than  did  their  efforts  to 
bring  about  the  harmonious  development  of  every  human  faculty. 

Pestalozzi's  attempts  at  Neuhof,  Stanz,  and  Tverdun,  in  the  period 
from  1780  to  1809,  were  practical  failures.  What  he  was  unable  to  ac- 
complish was  largely  realized  by  Fellenberg  and  his  successors  at  his 
schools  in  Hofwyl,  near  Berne,  in  the  years  1807-'48.  The  Hofwyl 
establishment,  to  which  Fellenberg  devoted  his  time  and  fortune,  in- 
cluded the  literary  institution,  which  dated  from  1807,  the  agricultural 
or  poor  school,  begun  in  1808,  the  normal  school,  established  a  little 
later,  and  the  intermediate  or  practical  institution,  which  was  started 
in  1827.  Fellenberg's  ideas  on  physical  education  are  of  especial  inter- 
est, since  they  are  so  much  more  liberal  and  enlightened  than  those  of 
the  majority  of  his  American  imitators.  The  Hofwyl  schools  were  or- 
ganized and  managed  in  accordance  with  the  ideas  expressed  in  the  fol- 
lowing extract  from  Fellenberg's  writings : 

Pure  air,  a  suitable  diet,  regular  exercise  and  repose,  and  a  proper  distribution  of 
time,  ate  the  principal  means  of  physical  education.  It  is  as  essential  that  a  pupil 
leave  his  studies  during  the  time  appropriated  to  relaxation,  as  that  he  study  during 
the  hours  devoted  to  that  purpose.  Voluntary  exercise  is  to  be  encouraged  by  pro- 
viding suitable  games,  by  affording  opportunities  for  gardening,  and  by  excursions 
and  bathing.  Regular  gymnastic  exercises  should  be  insisted  on  as  a  means  of 
developing  the  body;  a  healthy  action  of  the  bodily  frame  has  an  important  influ- 
ence on  both  mind  and  morals.  Music  is  to  be  considered  as  a  branch  of  physical 
education  having  powerful  moral  influences.  The  succession  of  study,  labor,  musical 
instruction,  and  play,  should  be  carefully  attended  to.  The  hours  of  sleep  should  be 
regulated  by  the  age  of  the  pupil. 
548 


PHYSICAL    TRAINING    IN   AMERICAN    COLLEGES.  21 

At  Hofwyl  the  gymnasium  was  a  high-ceiled  room,  100  feet  loiig  and 
50  feet  wide,  with  a  floor  of  earth.  It  was  well  furnished  with  appa- 
ratus. Besides  fencing  and  dancing,  military  drill  was  taught.  Riding- 
horses,  saddlery  and  carpentry  shops,  gardens,  and  a  swimming  pool, 
were  provided  for  the  scholars'  use. 

INTRODUCTION  OF  GYMNASTICS  INTO  AMERICA. 

FELLENBERG  SCHOOLS  IN   AMERICA. 

Fellenberg's  demonstration  of  the  fact  that  "a  poor  boy,  taken  in  his 
ninth  year  and  staying  till  his  eighteenth  year  was  completed,  paid  by 
his  labor  during  the  last  half  for  the  expenses  of  maintaining  him  over 
his  earnings  during  the  first  half,"  seems  to  have  made  a  deep  impres- 
sion on  "practical  educators"  in  the  United  States  sixty  years  ago.  In 
Volume  XV  of  Barnard's  Journal  of  Education  the  following  statement 
occurs : 

The  Gardiner  Lyceum  in  Maine  was  established  in  1823,  for  instruction  in  the  sci- 
entific principles  of  mechanics  and  agriculture,  and  in  1824  a  Fellenberg  school  was 
opened  at  Windsor,  Conn.,  by  Messrs.  Stebbins  &  Sill.  But  the  desire  to  afford 
means  by  which  poor  students  might  defray  the  expenses  of  their  education  while  at 
the  same  time  pursuing  their  studies,  was  more  influential  than  any  other  motive  in 
the  introduction  of  the  manual  labor  system.  The  first  institution  founded  upon  this 
system  was  the  Maine  Wesleyau  Seminary,  planned  in  1820  by  Elihu  Robinson  of 
Augusta,  Me.,  and  put  into  operation  in  the  spring  of  1825.  The  Oneida  Institute  of 
Science  and  Industry  was  founded  at  Whitesboro',  N.  Y.,  in  1825-'26,  and  became  one 
of  the  most  successful  manual  labor  schools  in  the  country.  In  1826  was  also  formed 
the  Andover  Mechanical  Association  at  Andover  Theological  Seminary,  Massachu- 
setts, solely  for  the  purpose  of  invigorating  and  preserving  health,  without  any 
reference  to  pecuniary  profit;  but  the  success  of  the  system  of  mechanical  labor 
instituted  by  them  made  it  a  model  which  was  followed  in  many  similar  institutions. 
Theological  seminaries,  colleges,  and  minor  schools,  in  almost  every  State  of  the 
Union,  were  established  with  manual  labor  as  an  essential  principle  in  their  consti- 
tution. 

In  1831  the  Society  for  Promoting  Manual  Labor  in  Literary  Institu- 
tions was  formed  in  New  York  City,  "  for  the  purpose  of  collecting  and 
diffusing  information  calculated  to  promote  the  establishment  and  pros- 
perity of  manual  labor  schools  and  seminaries  in  the  United  States, 
and  for  introducing  the  system  of  manual  labor  into  institutions  now 
established,  without  diminishing  the  standard  of  literary  and  scientific 
attainment."  Theodore  D.  Weld  was  the  general  agent  of  the  society, 
of  which  Zecariah  Lewis  was  president.  Mr.  Weld  made  a  report  based 
on  an  extended  tour  among  .the  "leading  literary  institutions  in  Ohio, 
Indiana,  Illinois,  Kentucky,  Missouri,  Tennessee,  and  Alabama."  After 
his  report  was  published  the  society  ceased  to  labor  for  the  accomplish- 
ment of  its  objects.  The  manual  labor  of  which  the  mass  of  college 
students  are  capable  is  far  too  rude  to  afford  profitable  educational  or 
pecuniary  results,  and  far  too  onerous  to  be  attractive  for  its  gamesome- 
ness.  Students  so  poverty-stricken  as  to  resort  to  the  menial  drudgery 

549 


22  CIRCULARS   OF   INFORMATION   FOR   1885. 

of  scullions  and  waiters  and  field-hands  may  be  commended  for  their 
pluck  and  assiduity,  but  it  is  time  that  a  protest  was  entered  against 
such  practices  except  in  cases  of  the  direst  necessity.  The  spectacle  of 
college  students  seeking  tips  and  drink-money  is  not  a  pleasant  one. 

THE  FIRST  GYMNASIA  IN  AMERICA. 

The  first  gymnasia  in  this  country  were  erected  out  of  doors,  in  bald 
imitation  of  Graco-German  models.  It  is  possible  that  as  early  as  1821 
the  Latin  School  at  Salem,  Mass.,  had  some  sort  of  a  gymnasium,  without 
instructors  being  provided  for  its  users;  but  it  seems  clear  that  the 
Bound  Hill  School,  established  at  Northampton,  Mass.,  in  1823,  for  the 
liberal  education  of  boys,  by  Messrs.  George  Bancroft  and  Joseph  Green 
Cogswell,  was  the  first  institution  in  this  country  to  make  gymnastic 
exercise  a  part  of  the  regular  course  of  instruction.  This  was  done  in 
1825,  when  the  Eound  Hill  Gymnasium  was  erected  under  the  super- 
vision of  Dr.  Charles  Beck,  who  had  been  a  pupil  and  friend  of  Father 
Jahn,  in  Germany. 

GYMKASTICS  AT  ROUND  HILL  SCHOOL  IN  1825. 

I  am  greatly  indebted  to  the  venerable  Dr.  George  C.  Shattuck,  of 
Boston,  who  was  a  pupil  at  Eound  Hill,  for  the  following  account  of 
the  physical  training  pursued  there: 

Dr.  Beck,  the  teacher  of  Latin,  afterward  the  professor  of  Latin  in  Harvard  Uni- 
versity, was  the  teacher  of  gymnastics.  A  large  piece  of  ground  was  devoted  to  the 
purpose  and  furnished  with  all  the  apparatus  used  in  the  German  gymnasia.  The 
whole  school  was  divided  into  classes,  and  each  class  had  an  hour  three  times  a  week 
for  instruction  by  Dr.  Beck.  At  the  same  time  there  were  a  dozen  riding  horses  and 
classes  for  riding  three  times  a  week.  Gardens  were  assigned  the  boys,  in  which  they 
raised  plants  and  vegetables.  A  piece  of  land  was  set  apart  for  building  huts.  Base- 
ball, hockey,  and  foot-ball  were  the  games.  I  remember  playing  in  a  match  game  at 
the  time  of  the  Presidential  election  in  which  Adams  and  Jackson  were  candidates. 
The  Jackson  boys  beat.  You  notice  how  much  was  done  for  physical  training.  I 
remember  Mr.  Edward  Everett  speaking  at  an  annual  exhibition  and  telling  us  how 
much  better  a  school,  how  much  greater  advantages  we  enjoyed  than  Mr.  Cogswell 
and  himself  had  at  Exeter.  Though  the  school  had  only  an  existence  of  twenty  years 
or  less,  and  failed  from  want  of  pecuniary  support,  I  believe  that  its  influence  has 
survived,  and  a  great  stimulus  was  given  by  it  to  the  cause  of  education.  Develop- 
ing the  bodily  powers  and  strengthening  the  constitution  were  there  first  recognized 
as  of  great  importance  in  the  education  of  boys.  The  boys  were  very  healthy.  I 
only  recall  one  death,  from  typhoid  fever. 

In  1828  Dr.  Beck  published  at  Northampton  a  translation  of  Jahn's 
"  Deutsche  Turnkunst".  Jahn's  enthusiastic  idealizing  spirit  seems  to 
have  been  caught  by  his  pupil,  for  Dr.  Beck,  in  his  preface,  alludes  to 
the  advantages  to  be  "derived  by  a  republic  from  gymnastick  exer- 
cises, uniting  in  one  occupation  all  the  different  classes  of  the  people, 
and  thus  forming  a  new  tie  for  those  who,  for  the  most  part,  are  widely 
separated  by  their  different  education  and  pursuits  of  life."  In  the 
republic  of  letters  Dr.  Beck  did,  indeed,  as  a  professor  of  Latin,  exert 

550 


PHYSICAL    TRAINING   IN   AMERICAN   COLLEGES.  23 

a  genuine  influence ;  but  gymnastics  have  as  yet  achieved  very  little  in 
the  way  of  shaping  the  affairs  of  the  American  Republic,  at  least  in 
the  direction  indicated  in  the  preface  above  cited. 

The  Bound  Hill  School,  in  other  features  than  those  instanced  in  Dr. 
Shattuck's  letter,  reminds  one  of  Fellenberg's  schools  at  Hofwyl.  This 
is  far  from  surprising  when  we  consider  that  both  Mr.  Bancroft  and 
Mr.  Cogswell  had  studied  and  traveled  in  Germany,  and  that  Mr.  Cogs- 
well's published  letters  show  that  he  had  visited  Fellenberg  at  Hofwyl, 
and  Pestalozzi  at  Yverdun. 

GYMNASTICS  AT  OTHER  SCHOOLS. 

It  is.  stated  by  Barnard,  in  his  Journal  of  Education,  that 

Dr.  Griscom,  who  had  become  acquainted  with  the  gymnastic  system  from  personal 
observation  in  the  schools  of  Pestalozzi  and  Fellenberg  in  1818  and  1819,  introduced 
it  to  some  extent  into  the  High  School  in  New  York,  established  by  him  under  the 
auspices  of  the  New  York  High  School  Society  in  1825,  in  imitation  of  the  Public 
High  School  of  Edinburgh. 

Dr.  Shattuck  himself  has,  as  is  well  known,  done  much  to  perpetuate 
the  ideas  inculcated  by  his  masters  at  Eound  Hill,  by  endowing  St. 
Paul's  School  at  Concord,  N.  H.,  which  enjoys  a  wide  and  deservedly 
high  reputation  for  training  boys.  It  is  enough  to  say  that  the  school 
has  won  its  success  largely  because  it  has  been  managed  in  accordance 
with  the  designs  of  its  founder,  whose  views  are  thus  stated  in  his  deed 
of  gift  made  about  1856 : 

The  founder  is  desirous  of  endowing  a  school  of  the  highest  class  for  boys,  in  which 
they  may  obtain  an  education  which  shall  fit  them  either  for  college  or  business  :  in- 
cluding thorough  intellectual  training  in  the  various  branches  of  learning ;  gymnastic 
and  manly  exercises  adapted  to  preserve  health  and  strengthen  the  physical  condi- 
tion ;  such  aesthetic  culture  and  accomplishments  as  shall  tend  to  refine  the  manners 
and  elevate  the  taste,  together  with  careful  moral  and  religious  instruction. 

THE  FIRST  GYMNASIUM  AT  HARVARD   COLLEGE. 

Dr.  Follen,  another  German  exile,  was  for  a  time  a  teacher  at  Eound 
Hill;  like  Dr.  Beck,  he  later  became  a  Harvard  professor.  It  was  due 
to  Dr.  Follen's  efforts,  backed  by  an  appeal,  from  the  medical  professors 
of  the  college,  strongly  recommending  the  practice  of  gymnastics,  that  a 
gymnasium  was  organized  at  Harvard  College  in  May,  1826.  Says  Rev. 
Dr.  Cazneau  Palfrey,  in  the  Harvard  Register : 

A  meeting  of  all  classes  was  held  in  the  college  chapel,  such  a  meeting  as  I  do  not 
remember  hearing  of  on  any  other  occasion,  at  which  a  response  was  made  to  this 
appeal,  and  resolutions  passed  expressing  our  readiness  to  follow  the  suggestions 
made  in  it.  One  of  the  unoccupied  commons  halls  was  fitted  up  with  various  gym- 
nastic appliances,  and  other  fixtures  were  erected  on  the  Delta  [i.  e.,  the  college  play- 
ground]. But  Dr.  Follen  did  not  confine  his  operations  to  these  two  localities.  One 
day  he  was  to  be  seen  issuing  from  the  college  yard  at  a  dog-trot,  with  all  college  at 
his  heels,  in  single  file  and  arms  akimbo,  making  a  train  a  mile  long,  bound  for  the 
top  of  Prospect  Hill.  My  impression  is  that  the  procession  was  stopped  by  a  farmer 

who  threatened  prosecution  for  damages. 

551 


24  CIRCULARS   OF   INFORMATION   FOR   1885. 

GYMNASTICS  AT  YALE  AND  OTHER  COLLEGES. 

In  September,  1826,  the  corporation  of  Yale  College  voted  an  appro- 
priation of  $300,  to  be  expended  under  the  direction  of  the  faculty  for 
the  "clearing  and  preparing  of  the  grounds  [on  the  college  green]  for  a 
gymnasium  and  for  the  erection  of  apparatus  for  gymnastic  exercises, 
with  a  view  to  the  promotion  of  the  health  of  the  students."  In  1826 
the  Dwight  Brothers  established  a  school,  known  as  the  New  Haven 
Gymnasium,  in  whose  course  of  instruction  a  prominent  part  was  as- 
signed to  gymnastics.  • 

In  1828,  at  Amherst  College,  a  petition  of  the  students  for  a  bowling- 
alley  was  denied  by  the  faculty  on  the  ground  that  it  would  cause  too 
much  noise,  but  chiefly  because  "  public  sentiment  would  not  justify 
the  countenancing  of  such  a  game."  We  may  remark  in  passing,  that 
the  new  gymnasium  at  Amherst  is  provided  not  only  with  bowling- 
alleys  but  also  with  billiard  tables.  The  example  of  Harvard  and  Yale 
as  to  gymnasia,  not  to  speak  of  that  of  Round  Hill,  less  than  tea  miles 
distant  from  their  college,  must  have  had  weight  with  the  Amherst  Fac- 
ulty, at  least  to  the  extent  of  allowing  an  out-of-door  gymnasium.  One 
who  entered  Amherst  as  a  student  in  1829  describes  a  gymnasium  which 
consisted  of  "a  few  horses  and  parallel  bars,  with  one  or  two  swings  in 
the  grove,  but  even  these  belonged  to  a  society  of  students  who  guarded 
their  property  with  jealous  care." 

VIEWS  AND  EFFORTS   OF  DR.   J.   C.   WARREN,   OF  BOSTON. 

Dr.  John  Collins  Warren,  in  his  day  the  foremost  surgeon  in  Boston, 
was  for  many  years  Professor  of  Anatomy  and  Surgery  in  the  Har- 
vard Medical  School.  For  some  years  prior  to  1825  he  lectured  to  the 
students  of  the  college  on  the  laws  of  health.  He  was  prominent  in  es- 
tablishing the  Tremont  Gymnasium,  in  1825,  in  Boston,  being  its  first 
president,  and  also  in  forwarding  Dr.  Pollen's  enterprise  at  Cambridge 
in  1826.  Dr.  Warren  endeavored  to  secure  "the  distinguished  philoso- 
pher and  gymnasiarch,  Professor  Jahn,"  for  the  head  of  the  Tremont 
Gymnasium.  But  uMr.  Jahn  was  so  situated,"  says  Dr.  Warren  in 
his  "Biographical  Notes",  "that  we  could  not,  without  obtaining  more 
means  than  were  at  our  disposition,  lead  him  to  abandon  his  own  coun- 
try and  establish  himself  for  life  in  ours.  The  idea  of  obtaining  his  aid 
was  therefore  relinquished,  and  I  afterward  addressed  Dr.  Lieber,  a  gen- 
tleman of  education  and  in  other  respects  well  fitted  to  take  the  super- 
intendence of  a  public  gymnasium."  The  Dr.  Lieber  referred  to  was  Dr. 
Francis  Lieber,  the  distinguished  publicist,  who  later  became  Professor 
of  Law  in  Columbia  College,  New  York. 

Dr.  Warren  goes  on  to  say  that  the  establishment  of  the  Tremont 

Gymnasium,  "as  is  apt  to  be  the  case  in  this  country  in  regard  to  nov- 

1  el  ties,  acted  contagiously  on  city  and  country.     Small  gymnasia  were 

]  established  in  connection  with  most  of  the  schools  and  academies  and 

552 


PHYSICAL    TRAINING   IN   AMERICAN    COLLEGES.  25 

colleges,  male  and  female."  In  1830  Dr.  Warren  delivered  an  address 
"  On  the  Importance  of  Physical  Education,"  before  the  American  Insti- 
tute of  Instruction,  at  Boston.  This  paper  was  republished  in  England, 
and  formed  the  basis  of  a  small  volume  on  "  The  Preservation  of  Health  ", 
published  by  Dr.  Warren  in  1846.  JIhe~le£ture  contains  many  sound 
suggestions  and  criticisms  regarding  certain  abuses,  which  have  by  no 
means  disappeared  as  yet,  in  female  education.  How  short-lived  was 
the  interest  evoked  by  J aim's  pupils,  in  gymnastics  for  educational  pur- 
poses, may  be  seen  from  the  following  extract  from  Dr.  Warren's  ad- 
dress : 

The  establishment  of  gymnasia  throughout  the  country  promised  at  one  period 
the  opening  of  a  new  era  in  physical  education.  The  exercises  were  pursued  with 
ardor,  so  long  as  their  novelty  lasted;  but,  owing  to  not  understanding  their  impor- 
tance, or  some  defect  in  the  institutions  which  adopted  them,  they  have  gradually 
been  neglected  and  forgotten,  at  least  in  our  vicinity.  The  benefits  which  resulted 
from  these  institutions,  within  my  personal  knowledge  and  experience,  far  transcended 
the  most  sanguine  expectations.  *  *  *  The  diversions  of  the  gymnasium  should 
constitute  a  regular  part  of  the  duties  of  all  our  colleges  and  seminaries  of  learning ; 
and  *  *  *  the  system  of  rewards,  so  dangerous  when  mismanaged  in  literary  edu- 
cation, might  be  introduced  without  any  ill  effect. 

Dr.  Warren  was  very  tenacious  of  his  high  opinion  concerning  gym- 
nastics, for  we  find  mention  in  his  Journal,  under  the  date  of  January  8, 
1853,  that  he  "  Had  much  conversation  with  President  Walker  [of  Har- 
vard College].  Recommended  to  make  gymnastic  exercises  a  part  of 
the  duty  of  the  student." 

CONDITION    OF     PHYSICAL    TRAINING     PRIOR    TO    THE 
INTRODUCTION    OF    THE    "NEW    GYMNASTICS". 

Teachers  as  a  body  fifty  years  ago  had  neither  the  training  nor  the 
inclination  for  achieving  success  in  the  domain  of  physical  education. 
What  might  have  been  the  result  if  Drs.  Beck,  Follen,  and  Lieber  had 
not  quit  the  field  it  is  vain  to  surmise,  since  even  they  were  gov- 
erned more  by  theoretical  and  aesthetic  notions  than  by  scientific 
knowledge  of  the  laws  of  bodily  health  and  development.  The  late 
Dr.  E.  Jarvis,  in  his  "Practical  Physiology",  notes  that  when  the  gym- 
nasium was  established  at  Harvard  University  in  1826,  "the  students 
were  invited  to  go  to  the  play-ground  at  12  and  engage  in  the  gymnastic 
exercises  till  1  o'clock.  These  were  very  active,  and  some  of  them  vio- 
lent, for  men  and  boys  of  their  strength,  so  that  when  they  left  the  field 
for  dinner  they  were  generally  fatigued,  and  some  were  almost  ex- 
hausted. Those  who  were  most  fatigued  ate  their  dinner  with  less  than 
their  usual  relish,  and  felt  neither  refreshed  nor  comfortable  afterward." 

When  we  consider  that  in  the  case  of  the  early  gymnasia  the  appli- 
ances were  rarely  protected  from  the  weather;  that  competent  native 
teachers  did  not  exist;  that  funds  were  not  forthcoming  to  attract  such 
from  abroad ;  and  that  the  prepossessions  of  the  teaching  class,  and  of 

653 


26  CIRCULARS    OF   INFORMATION   FOR   1885. 

boards  of  trust,  were  in  general  such  as  to  render  them  indifferent,  if 
not  positively  averse,  to  the  maintenance  of  a  genuine  and  thorough- 
going system  of  bodily  training,  the  reasons  are  not  far  to  seek  for  the 
slow  and  often  retarded  development  of  physical  training  as  a  branch 
of  American  education. 

Here  and  there  a  handful  of  enthusiastic  and  athletically  inclined 
students,  as  at  Princeton  College  in  1857,  would  attempt  to  furnish  and 
maintain  a  gymnasium,  or  would  patronize  some  private  venture  of  an 
athlete  or  pugilist ;  but  there  appears  to  have  been  no  well-considered  and 
sustained  attempt  by  the  authorities  of  any  American  college  to  pro- 
vide its  students,  either  with  instruction  in  gymnastics  or  adequate 
facilities  for  athletic  sports,  during  the  period  extending  from  1826  to 
1860. 

THE   GYMNASIUM  AT  THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  VIRGINIA. 

Possibly  the  University  of  Virginia  presents  an  exception  to  this 
statement,  inasmuch  as  there  was  a  large  out-of-doors  gymnasium  main- 
tained on  the  grounds  of  that  institution  from  1852  till  the  outbreak  of 
the  war.  A  competent  gymnast  and  sword-master,  a  Frenchman,  had 
it  in  charge ;  but  in  order  to  support  himself  he  had  to  eke  out  the 
small  sum  received  from  the  students  by  cultivating  a  kitchen-garden 
and  keeping  a  Russian  bath-house. 

REVIVAL  OF  INTEREST  IN  PHYSICAL   TRAINING. 

Just  before  and  just  after  the  outbreak  of  the  war  in  1861,  a  great 
interest  sprang  up,  especially  among  students,  in  regard  to  gymnastics, 
feats  of  strength,  and  athletic  sports.  During  this  period  Dr.  Windship 
appeared  in  Boston  as  the  champion  and  exemplar  of  the  severest  form 
of  gymnastics,  that  of  lifting  heavy  weights.  The  Tom  Brown  books 
by  Thomas  Hughes,  which  were  published  about  this  time,  served  to  fire 
the  imagination  of  school-boys  and  collegians,  and  to  enhance  the  inter- 
est of  their  elders  in  athletics  and  gymnastics.  The  Doctors  Taylor  in 
New  York  and  Dr.  Lewis  in  Boston  attained  considerable  success  as  ex- 
ponents of  Ling's  Medical  Gymnastics,  or  the  Swedish  Movement  Cure. 

THE  NEW  GYMNASTICS. 

'   DB.JDIO  LEWIS/ AND  HIS  INFLUENCE. 


Dr.  Dio  Lewis  labored  strenuously  for  the  introduction  of  his  "new 
gymnastics  for  men,  women,  and  children,"  and  succeeded  in  organiz- 
ing in,1861  his  Normal  Institute  for  Physical  Education  in  the  city  of 
Boston;  President  Felton,  of  Harvard  University,  was  its  active  and 
earnest  presiding  officer  up  to  the  time  of  his  death.  The  Institute 
embraced  the  departments  of  anatomy,  physiology,  and  hygiene,  that 
of  vocal  culture,  and  that  of  gymnastics.  The  full  course  of  instruction 
554 


PHYSICAL    TRAINING   IN   AMERICAN   COLLEGES.  27 

was  ten  weeks.  At  Boston,  and  later  at  Lexington,  a  large  number  of 
teachers  of  the  "  new  profession  "  were  graduated.  The  first  class,  grad- 
j3atedjnjeptember,  1861^numbered  fourteen. 

Dr.  Lewis's  book,  "New  Gymnastics  for  Men,  Women,  and  Children, 
with  a  Translation  of  Prof.  Kloss's  Dumb-bell  Instructor  and  Prof. 
Schreber's  Pangymnastikon,"  was  widely  read,  and  reached  its  eighth 
edition  in  the  course  of  two  years.  It  was  believed  that  an  era  had 
begun  in  which  the  "new  gymnastics"  would  be  universally  introduced 
into  the  schools  throughout  the  land.  The  problem  of  physical  educa- 
tion was  considered  solved,  because  free  gymnastics  could  be  carried 
out  in  any  school-room  without  removing  the  desks. 

MISS  BEECHER'S  EXPERIMENTS  IN  CALISTHENICS  von  GIRLS. 


Prior  to  1861  Yery  little  had  been  undertaken  in  the  way  of  teaching 
girls  gymnastics,  though  Miss  Catherine  E.  Beecher's  eiforts  in  that 
direction  atdSarnOTfo  Conn.,  and  later,  in  1837,  at  Cincinnati,  O.,  merit 
notice.  In  her  "Educational  Reminiscences  and  Suggestions",  pub- 
lished in  1874,  Miss  Beecher  says : 

la  Cincinnati  I  invented  a  course  of  calisthenic  exercises,  accompanied  by  music, 
which  was  an  improvement  on  the  one  I  adopted  at'Hartford.  The  aim  was  to  secure 
all  the  advantages  supposed  to  be  gained  in  dancing- schools,  with  additional  advan- 
tages for  securing  graceful  movements  to  the  sound  of  music.  These  exercises  were 
extensively  adopted  in  schools,  both  east  and  west,  but  finally  passed  away.  One  reason 
was  that  they  demanded  a  piano  or  some  other  instrument,  and  a  large  room  without 
furniture ;  another  was  the  want  of  appreciation  of  physical  exercise,  and  of  the  im- 
portance of  training  young  girls  to  simple  gracefulness.  To  meet  the  first  difficulty,  I 
arranged  a  system  of  exercises  which  could  be  used  in  a  school-room  without  remov- 
ing desks  and  benches,  to  be  performed  either  with  or  without  music ;  and  this  method 
is  found  in  my  work  on  physiology  and  calisthenics,  which  has  been  extensively 
adopted.  Dr.  Dio  Lewis's  system  of  gymnastics  includes  many  of  my  methods,  with 
additions  which  seem  objectionable  in  this  respect :  they  are  so  vigorous  and  ungrace- 
ful as  to  be  more  suitable  for  boys  than  for  young  ladies.  When  physical  educatiou 
takes  the  proper  place  in  our  schools,  young  girls  will  be  trained  in  the  class-rooms  to 
move  head,  hands,  and  arms  gracefully ;  to  sit,  to  stand,  and  to  walk  properly,  and  to 
pursue  calisthenic  exercises  for  physical  development  as  a  regular  school  duty  as  much 
.as  their  studies ;  and  these  exercises,  set  to  music,  will  be  sought  as  the  most  agree- 
able of  school  duties. 

Such  exercises  are  not  as  yet  so  sought,  to  any  considerable  extent, 
we  may  remark. 

THE  GYMNASIA  OF  THIS  PERIOD. 

Although  the  glowing  anticipations  concerning  the  immediate  and 
future  usefulness  of  the  light  gymnastics,  as  distinguished  from  the 
heavy  gymnastics,  as  the  Turning  exercises  were  called,  were  not  real- 
ized, the  era  of  building  gymnasia  dates  from  1859-'60.  Up  to  1859 
no  college  in  the  country  possessed  a  commodious  and  well  furnished 
building  devoted  to  the  purposes  of  physical  training.  In  the  year 
1859-'60,  however,  Amherst,  Harvard,  and  Yale  Colleges  built  gym- 
nasia. 

555 


28  CIRCULARS    OF   INFORMATION   FOR   1885. 

T.  W.  HIGGINSON  ON  GYMNASTICS. 

An  article  entitled  "Gymnastics,"  by  Thomas  Wentworth  Higginson, 
in  the  Atlantic  Monthly  for  March,  1861,  admirably  reflects  the  senti- 
ment of  that  time  on  the  part  of  those  who  were  anxious  to  improve 
educational  methods.  Mr.  Higginson  says: 

It  is  one  good  evidence  of  the  increasing  interest  in  these  exercises  that  the  Amer- 
ican gymnasia  built  during  the  past  year  or  two  have  far  surpassed  all  their  prede- 
cessors in  size  and  completeness,  and  have  probably  no  superiors  in  the  world.  The 
Seventh  Regiment  gymnasium  in  New  York,  just  opened  by  Mr.  Abiier  S.  Brady,  is 
180  by  52  feet  in  its  main  hall,  and  35  feet  in  height,  with  nearly  1,000  pupils.  The 
beautiful  hall  of  the  Metropolitan  Gymnasium,  in  Chicago,  measures  108  by  80  feet, 
and  is  20  feet  high  at  the  sides,  with  a  dome  in  the  center  40  feet  high  and  the  same 
in  diameter.  Next  to  these  probably  rank  the  new  gymnasium  at  Cincinnati,  the 
Tremont  Gymnasium  at  Boston,  and  the  Bunker  Hill  Gymnasium  at  Charlestownr 
all  recently  opened.  Of  college  institutions  the  most  complete  are  probably  those  at 
Cambridge  and  New  Haven.  The  arrangements  for  instruction  are  rather  more  sys- 
tematic at  Harvard.  *  *  * 

Gymnastic  exercises  are  as  yet  but  very  sparingly  introduced  into  our  seminaries,  pri- 
mary or  professional,  though  a  great  change  is  already  beginning.  *  *  *  Until  lately 
all  our  educational  plans  have  assumed  man  to  be  a  merely  sedentary  being ;  we  have 
employed  teachers  of  music  and  drawing  to  go  from  school  to  school  to  teach  those 
elegant  arts,  but  have  had  none  to  teach  the  art  of  health.  *  *  *  It  is  something 
to  have  got  beyond  the  period  when  active  sports  were  actually  prohibited.  I  remem- 
ber when  there  was  but  one  boat  owned  by  a  Cambridge  student,  and  that  boat  was 
soon  reported  to  have  been  suppressed  by  the  Faculty,  on  the  plea  that  there  was  a  col- 
lege law  against  a  student's  keeping  domestic  animals,  and  a  boat  was  a  domestic  an- 
imal within  the  meaning  of  the  statute.  *  *  * 

It  would  be  unpardonable,  in  this  connection,  not  to  speak  a  good  word  for  the 
favorite  hobby  of  the  day — Dr.  Lewis  and  his  system  of  gymnastics;  or,  more  prop- 
erly, of  calisthenics.  .*  *  *  Dr.  Windship  had  done  all  that  was  needed  in  apostle- 
ship  of  severe  exercises,  and  there  was  wanting  some  man  with  a  milder  hobby,  per- 
fectly safe  for  a  lady  to  drive.  The  Fates  provided  that  man  also  in  Dr.  Lewis — so  hale 
and  hearty,  so  profoundly  confident  in  the  omnipotence  of  his  own  methods  and  the 
nselessness  of  all  others,  with  such  a  ready  invention,  and  such  an  inundation  of  ani- 
mal spirits,  that  he  could  flood  any  company,  no  matter  how  starched  or  listless,  with 
an  unbounded  appetite  for  ball-games  and  beau-games.  How  long  it  will  last  in  the 
hands  of  others  than  the  projector  remains  to  be  seen,  especially  as  some  of  his  feats 
are  more  exhausting  than  average  gymnastics;  but  in  the  mean  time  it  is  just  what 
is  wanted  for  multitudes  of  persons  who  find  or  fancy  the  real  gymnasium  to  be  uu- 
suited  to  them.  It  will  especially  render  service  to  female  pupils  so  far  as  they 
practice  it ;  for  the  accustomed  gymnastic  exercises  seem  never  yet  to  have  been 
rendered  attractive  to  them  on  any  large  scale,  and  with  any  permanency. 

In  another  connection  the  same  writer  says : 

Wherever  Dr.  Lewis's  methods  have  been  introduced  important  advantages  have 
followed.  He  has  invented  an  astonishing  variety  of  games  and  well-studied  move- 
ments, with  the  lightest  and  cheapest  ajppjaratug,  balls,  bags,  rings,  wands,  wooden 
dumb-bells,  small  clubs,  and  otherTnstrumentalities,  which  are  all  gracefully  and 
effectually  used  by  his  classes,  to  the  sound  of  music  and  in  a  way  to  spare  the  weakest 
when  lightly  administered  or  to  fatigue  the  strongest  when  applied  in  force.  Being 
adapted  for  united  use  by  both  sexes,  they  make  more  thorough  appeals  to  the  social 
element  than  ordinary  gymnastics ;  and  evening  classes,  to  meet  several  evenings  in  a 

556 


PHYSICAL    TRAINING   IN    AMERICAN   COLLEGES.  29 

week,  have  proved  exceedingly  popular  in  some  of  our  towns.  These  exercises  do 
not  require  fixed  apparatus  or  a  special  hall.  Dr.  Lewis  himself  is  now  training  reg- 
ular teachers  to  carry  on  the  same  good  work,*and  his  movement  ia  undoubtedly  the 
most  important  single  step  yet  taken  for  the  physical  education  of  American  women. 

OUTCOME  OF  THE   "NEW  GYMNASTICS." 

Further  on  we  shall  have  occasion  to  outline  the  development  of 
military  drill  and  discipline  as  a  feature  in  school  and  college  training, 
and  to  speak  of  the  stimulus  given  by  the  War  to  all  forms  of  bodily 
training  and  exercise,  and  especially  to  athletic  sports  and  contests. 
At  this  point  we  need  only  note  that,  although  what  we  may  term  the 
light  gymnastic  movement  was  instrumental  in  causing  the  erection  of 
a  considerable  number  of  school  and  college  gymnasia  and  the  inaugu- 
ration of  a  few  poorly-endowed  and  rudely-organized  departments  of 
physical  culture,  the  force  of  the  movement  was  soon  spent,  and  the 
schemes  for  physical  training  assumed  a  semi-military  character. 

OPENING  OF  THE   EEA  OF  BUILDING  GYMNASIA  IN 

COLLEGES. 

-  The  Amherst,  Harvard,  and  Yale  gymnasia,  as  was  stated  above, 
were  built  in  1859-'60.  Their  external  dimensions  were,  respectively, 
72  by  50  feet,  85  by  50  feet,  and  100  by  50  feet.  They  cost,  respectively, 
in  round  numbers,  $15,000,  $10,000,  and  $13,000,  and  were,  for  their 
time,  elaborate  and  well  furnished  structures.  The  Amherst  gymna- 
sium was  named  the  Barrett  Gymnasium,  in  honor  of  Benjamin  Barrett, 
M.D.,  of  Northampton,  Mass.,  who  was  the  largest  contributor  to  the 
fund  for  its  erection.  Dr.  Barrett's  name  does  not  appear  on  the  roll  of 
the  Hound  Hill  School ;  but  it  is  not  unlikely  that  familiarity  with  the 
workings  of  that  institution  may  have  been  influential  in  determining 
his  gifts  to  the  Amherst  gymnasium.  One  gentleman,  who  declined  to 
give  his  name,  gave  $8,000  toward  the  building  of  the  Harvard  gym- 
nasium. These  three  gymnasia  have  all  been  outgrown,  and  those  at 
Amherst  and  Cambridge  have  been  replaced  by  costly  and  vastly  im- 
proved edifices. 

CHARACTER  OF  THE  TRAINING  ADOPTED. 

From  the  outset  compulsory  exercise  has  been  required  of  all  able- 
bodied  students  at  Amherst,  under  the  control  and  direction  of  an  edu- 
cated physician,  whose  professorial  chair  was  accorded  a  place  at  the 
faculty  table.  Gymnastics  have  never  been  required  at  Harvard,  where 
Dr.  D.  A.  Sargent  was,  in  1879,  appointed  Assistant  Professor  of  Phys- 
ical Training,  and  Director  of  the  Hemenway  Gymnasium.  His  prede- 
dfessors  were  a  professional  teacher  of  boxing,  and  a  ma'ster  of  military 
drill.  At  Yale  College  no  very  comprehensive  or  commendable  system 

of  administration  has  as  yet  been  worked  out. 

557 


30  CIRCULARS   OF   INFORMATION   FOR   1885. 


DEPARTMENT    OF   PHYSICAL   EDUCATION   AT   AMHERST 

COLLEGE. 

The  salient  facts  concerning  the  beginning,  growth,  and  peculiarities 
of  the  department  of  hygiene  and  physical  education  of  Ainherst  Col- 
lege demand  our  attention  at  this  point;  for,  as  has  been  well  said  by 
President  Eliot  of  Harvard,  "It  is  to  Ainherst  College  that  the  colleges 
of  the  country  are  indebted  for  a  demonstration  of  the  proper  mode  of 
organizing  the  department  of  physical  training." 

VIEWS  OF  PRESIDENT  STEARNS. 

When  the  late  W.  A.  Stearns,  D.D.,  was  inaugurated  as  President  of 
Amherst  College,  in  1854,  he  devoted  a  considerable  portion  of  his  dis- 
course to  enforcing  the  proposition  that  no  course  of  education  was 
cooiplete  that  did  not  devote  special  attention  to  securing  the  normal 
development  and  healthy  working  of  the  body.  In  his  first  report  to 
the  trustees,  in  1855,  President  Stearns  said: 

No  one  thing  has  demanded  more  of  my  anxious  attention  than  the  health  of  the  stu- 
dents. The  waning  of  the  physical  energies  in  the  midway  of  the  college  course  is 
almost  the  rule,  rather  than  the  exception,  among  us,  and  cases  of  complete  breaking 
down  are  painfully  numerous. 

A  year  later  he  tells  the  trustees  that  the  breaking  down  of  the  health 
of  the  students  is,  in  his  opinion,  "  wholly  unnecessary."  In  his  report 
for  1859,  President  Stearns  again  returns  to  the  consideration  of  the 
question  of  students'  health,  and  says : 

Time  and  experience  have  convinced  me  of  an  imperious  demand,  in  the  circum- 
stances of  an  academic  life,  for  immediate  and  efficient  action  on  this  subject.  Many 
of  our  students  come  from  farms,  mechanic  shops,  and  other  active  occupations,  to 
the  hard  study  and  sedentary  habits  of  college.  Physical  exercise  is  neglected,  the 
laws  of  health  are  violated,  the  protests  and  exhortations  of  instructors  and  other 
friends  are  unheeded.  The  once  active  student  soon  becomes  physically  indolent, 
his  mental  powers  become  dulled,  his  movements  and  appearance  indicate  physical 
deterioration.  By  the  time  Junior  year  is  reached  many  students  have  broken  down 
in  health,  and  every  year  some  lives  are  sacrificed.  Physical  training  is  not  the  only 
means  of  preventing  this  result,  but  it  is  among  the  most  prominent  of  them.  If  it 
could  be  regularly  conducted,  if  a  moderate  amount  of  physical  exercise  could  be 
secured  as  a  general  thing  to  every  student  daily,  I  have  a  deep  conviction,  founded 
on  close  observation  and  experience,  that  not  only  would  lives  and  health  be  pre- 
served, but  animation  and  cheerfulness  and  a  higher  order  of  efficient  study  and  in- 
tellectual life  would  be  secured.  It  will  be  for  the  consideration  of  this  Board, 
whether,  for  the  encouragement  of  this  sort  of  exercise,  the  time  has  not  come  when 
efficient  measures  should  be  taken  for  the  erection  of  a  gymnasium  and  the  procuring 
of  its  proper  appointments. 

These  remarks  were  rendered  emphatic  by  a  statement  concerning 
the  death  of  tMro  seniors  who  had  broken  down  under  college  life.  • 

558 


PHYSICAL    TRAINING   IN   AMERICAN    COLLEGES.  31 

INSTITUTION   OF   THE  DEPARTMENT  BY   THE  TRUSTEES. 

The  trustees  concluded  that  the  time  for  erecting  a  gymnasium  had 
come,  and  set  about  raising  the  money  for  it,  with  the  result  before  al- 
luded to.  It  was  unanimously  voted  by  the  trustees — 

To  establish  a  department  of  physical  culture  in  this  college,  and  that  the  duties  of 
its  professor  shall  be : 

(1)  To  take  charge  of  the  gymnasium  and  give  instruction  to  the  students  in  gym- 
nastics. 

(2)  To  take  a  general  oversight  of  the  health  of  the  students,  and  to  give  such  in- 
struction on  the  subject  as  may  be  deemed  expedient,  and  under  the  direction  of  the 
Faculty,  like  all  the  other  studies. 

(3)  To  teach  elocution  so  far  as  it  is  connected  with  physical  training. 

(4)  He  shall  give  lectures  from  time  to  time  upon  hygiene,  physical  culture,  and 
other  topics  pertaining  to  the  laws  of  life  and  health,  including  some  general  knowl- 
edge of  anatomy  and  physiology. 

(5)  The  individual  appointed  to  have  charge  of  this  department  shall  be  a  thor- 
oughly-educated physician,  and,  like  other  teachers  and  professors,  shall  be  a  mem- 
ber of  the  college  Faculty.     Ifc  is  distinctly  understood  that  the  health  of. the  students 
shall  at  all  times  be  an  object  of  his  special  watch,  care,  and  counsel. 

At  the  suggestion  of  Dr.  Nathan  Allen,  of  Lowell,  Mass.,  the  well- 
known  writer  on  hygiene  and  sociology,  then  and  now  one  of  the  trus- 
tees of  the  college,  it  was  voted  to  designate  the  head  of  the  newly 
created  department  as  the  Professor  of  Hygiene  and  Physical  Education. 
Dr.  Allen  was  also  mainly  responsible  for  the  definition  of  the  duties 
of  the  professorship  as  embodied  in  the  vote  quoted  above. 

The  plan  of  the  president  and  Faculty  alluded  to  under  the  second 
head  of  this  vote  was  as  follows: 

First,  The  main  object  shall  not  be  to  secure  feats  of  agility  and  strength,  or  even 
powerful  muscle,  but  to  keep  in  good  health  the  whole  body.  Second,  That  all  the 
students  shall  be  required  to  attend  on  its  exercises  for  half  an  hour,  designated  for 
the  purpose,  at  least  four  days  in  the  week.  Third,  The  instructor  shall  assign  to 
each  individual  such  exercises  as  may  be  best  adapted  to  him,  taking  special  care  to 
prevent  the  ambitious  from  violent  action  and  all  extremes,  endeavoring  to  work  the 
whole  body,  and  not  overwork  any  part  of  it.  Fourth,  That  while  it  may  not  be 
expedient  to  mark  the  gradation  of  attainment,  as  in  the  intellectual  branches,  yet 
regularity,  attention,  and  docility  should  be  carefully  noted,  so  as  to  have  their 
proper  weight  in  the  deportment  column  of  the  student's  general  position.  Fifth, 
That  some  time  shall  be  allowed  out  of  study  hours  for  those  volunteer  exercises 
which  different  men,  according  to  their  tastes,  may  elect  for  recreation,  and  particu- 
larly that  the  bowling  alleys  be  not  given  up  to  promiscuous  use,  but  be  allotted  at 
regular  hours  to  those  who  wish  to  make  use  of  them — all  these  volunteer  exercises, 
of  whatever  kind,  to  be  under  the  supervision  of  the  gymnasium  instructor.  Sixth, 
That  the  building  shall  always  be  closed  before  dark,  that  no  light  shall  be  used  in 
it,  and  no  smoking  or  irregularities  of  any  kind  shall  be  allowed  in  it.  Seventh, 
That  the  instructor  ought  to  be  a  member  of  the  Faculty,  and  give  in  to  it  his  marks 
and  occasional  accounts,  and  receive  directions  as  other  officers  of  the  college  are 
accustomed  to  do. 

The  department  has  been  administered  from  the  first  without  any 
material  deviation  from  the  plan  thus  outlined. 

559 


32  CIRCULARS    OF    INFORMATION    FOR    1885. 

HISTORY  OF  THE  DEPARTMENT   SINCE   1860. 

In  August,  1860,  J.  W.  Hooker,  M.D.,  a  graduate  of  Yale  College,  was 
appointed  Professor  in  this  department.  It  is  said  of  him  that  he  had 
"  given  special  attention  to  physical  training,  and,  being  himself  a  skill- 
ful gymnast,  possessed  qualities  that  eminently  fitted  him  for  starting 
such  an  enterprise.  But  before  the  close  of  the  year  his  health  failed, 
and  he  resigned  his  position,  and  died  in  about  two  years  afterward." 
The  attention  and  cooperation  of  the  students  were  the  more  easily  en- 
listed in  the  new  departure,  owing  to  the  martial  spirit  then  so  rife. 
During  the  spring  of  1861  Colonel  Lyman,  a  distinguished  drill  master, 
was  employed  to  give  instruction  and  training  in  military  tactics  and 
exercises.  , 

In  August,  1861,  Edward  Hitchcock,  M.D..  a  graduate  of  Amherst 
College  and  of  the  Harvard  Medical  School,  was  appointed  Dr.  Hook- 
er's successor.  Dr.  Hitchcock  has  served  continuously  in  that  capacity 
from  then  till  now. 

The  best  exposition  of  the  Amherst  system  of  training  and  its  results 
is  found  in  Dr.  Hitchcock's  "  Eeport  of  Twenty  Years  Experience  in  the 
Department  of  Physical  Education  and  Hygiene  in  Amherst  College,  to 
the  Board  of  Trustees,  June  27,  1881.  Amherst,  Mass. :  Press  of  C.  A. 
Bangs  &  Co.,  1881,"  from  which  the  following  extracts  are  taken : 

Physical  culture  as  expressed  to  Amherst  College  students  by  the  experience  of 
the  past  twenty  years,  means  something  besides,  something  in  addition  to,  muscular 
exercise.  It  includes  cleanliness  of  skin,  attention  to  stomach  and  bowels,  relaxa- 
tion from  daily  mental  work,  freedom  from  certain  kinds  of  petty  discipline,  but  with 
so  much  requirement  and  restraint  as  will  give  coherence,  respect,  and  stability  to 
the  methods  of  maintaining  health  and  the  men  employing  them. 

The  way  in  which  students  here  are  called  upon  to  secure  health,  and  its  correct 
and  normal  maintenance  for  college  requirements,  is  to  be  sure  of  some  active,  lively-, 
and  vigorous  muscular  exercise  at  stated  periods  ;  not  requiring  a  rigid  military  or 
hardening  drill  of  certain  portions  of  the  body,  but  offering  them  such  exercises  as 
shall,  while  regularly  engaged  in ,  be  vigorous,  pleasant,  recreative,  and  at  the  same 
time,  even  without  a  manifest  consciousness  of  it,  be  calling  into  exercise  their  pow- 
ers in  active,  vigorous,  easy,  and  graceful  movements.  Light  wooden  dumb-bells, 
weighing  about  one  pound  each,  are  placed  in  the  hand,  and  then  a  series  of  move- 
ments are  directed  and  timed  by  music,  occupying  in  all  from  20  to  30  minutes  each 
day,  and  are  simultaneously  performed  by  a  whole  class  under  the  lead  of  the  captain. 

Believers  in  heavy  gymnastics  are  apt  to  regard  our  exercises  as  perhaps  well 
enough  for  girls  aud  children,  because  they  are  only  the  swinging  of  one- pound  dumb- 
bells for  less  than  half  an  hour.  And  they  would  reflect  upon  the  exercise  and  call 
it  calisthenics,  and  not  dignify  it  by  the  term  gymnastics.  To  this  we  would  only 
say,  "What's  in  a  name?"  If  calisthenics  only  accomplishes  what  we  need,  our 
wants  are  satisfied.  *  *  *  Certain  it  is  that  the  young  men  at  the  close  of  one  of 
these  exercises,  with  the  temperature  at  60°,  have  ordinarily  secured  moisture  on  the 
skin,  are  breathing  full  and  deeply,  the  blood  circulates,  the  abdominal  viscera  are 
sufficiently  stimulated,  and  their  muscles  are  limber  and  elastic ;  they  have  gained 
good  exorcise,  arid  the  whole  man  has  the  feeling  that  he  has  worked  in  a  physical 
way,  and  yet  is  not  exhauster!.  The  whole  body  in  the  loose  and  easy  uniform,  un- 
constrained by  a  rigid  piece  of  apparatus,  is  given  a  freedom  of  action  which  cannot 
060 


« 

PHYSICAL    TRAINING    IN   AMERICAN    COLLEGES.  33 

be  acquired  by  the  stolid  march,  or  the  constraint  of  either  fixed  or  many  kinds  of 
movable  gymnastic  apparatus ;  and,  lastly,  the  students  generally  feel,  withal,  that 
they  have  had  a  good  time.  And  the  mental  and  social  freedom  allowed  and  encour- 
aged in  these  exercises  conduces  to  the  rapid  and  healthful  evaporation  of  superflu- 
ous animal  spirits,  generated  by  the  physical  and  mental  confinement  of  study. 

And  while  our  methods  are  not  so  perfect  as  might  be  devised  with  more  complete 
apparatus  and  better  men  to  direct,  if  health  of  college  be  the  only  thing  to  be  con- 
sidered, they  do  seem  to  be  good  as  far  as  they  go ;  enough  for  the  large  majority, 
and  of  some  service  to  all.  *  *  * 

During  the  first  few  years  of  our  work,  the  simpler  and  easier  forms  of  heavy  gym- 
nastic work  were  required  of  all  the  class ;  every  man  was  expected  to  practice  heavy 
gymnastics  under  direction  of  the  leader,  one  of  the  class.  This  became  very  tedious 
work,  irksome  and  impossible  for  some  men  to  do  except  with  such  effort,  moral  and 
physical,  :is  was  injurious  to  be  put  on  a  large  part  of  every  class.  *  *  *  But  it 
was  found  out  that  the  men  who  were  sound  in  all  four  of  their  limbs  and  eyesight 
could  go  through  movements  enough  with  wooden  dumb-bells  to  secure  the  necessary 
muscular  waste  and  development  for  healthful  study,  and  hence  no  requirement  for 
heavy  gymnastic  work  has  been  made  of  any  student  for  the  past  fifteen  years.  At 
the  same  time  there  are  a  few  who  take  as  naturally  to  heavy  gymnastics,  and  as 
profitably  too,  as  ducks  to  water,  and  these  are  allowed  and  encouraged  to  reasonable 
efforts  in  this  direction.  These  at  first  are  guided  and  watched,  but  they  are  at  length 
allowed  and  expected  to  go  on  with  their  exercise  in  this  direction  at  their  own  dis- 
cretion, save  with  the  aid  of  one  of  the  older  classes  who  has  shown  himself  the  best 
gymnast  in  college.  • 

And  once  during  each  year  a  prize  exhibition  is  held,  when  the  individual  students 
may  compete  with  each  other  in  heavy  gymnastics,  and  the  classes  may  show  their 
proficiency  in  light  exercises  with  dumb-bells  and  marching.  For  the  first  few  years 
the  morning  hour  was  secured  as  the  best  time  for  the  physical  exercises  of  the  col- 
lege. And  while  in  theory,  and  perhaps  fact,  this  is  the  best  time  for  exercise,  yet  the 
hour  of  early  evening,  between  daylight  and  darkness,  has  come  to  be  the  time  which 
we  have  of  late  most  largely  employed  for  gymnastics.  *  *  * 

STATISTICAL  \VORK  AND  RESULTS. 

One  of  the  first  duties  I  felt  called  upon  to  perform  after  your  appointment  to  this 
Professorship,  was  to  prepare  blanks  for  several  anthropometric  observations  of  the 
students  of  college.  This  I  did  partly  to  enable  the  students  to  learn  by  yearly  com- 
parison of  themselves  how  they  are  getting  on  as  regards  the  physical  man.  The 
ulterior  object,  however,  was  to  help  ascertain  what  are  the  data  or  constants  of  the 
typical  man,  and  especially  the  college  man.  I  have  conceived  no  theory  on  the  sub- 
ject, a,nd  have  instituted  but  very  few  generalizations ;  but  my  desire  has  been  to 
carefully  compile  and  put  on  record  as  many  of  these  observations  as  possible  for 
csmparisc-n  and  verification  of  statistical  work  in  this  same  direction  by  many  other 
persons  in  America  and  Europe. 

In  many  of  the  final  results  of  these  twenty  years  data,  it  is  interesting  to  find  a 
general  correspondence  to  the  established  data  of  more  numerous  measurements  of 
the  human  body,  and  in  the  variation  from  authorities  of  large  experience  we  find 
the  differences  as  a  whole  in  favor  of  the  student.  These  results  seem  to  show  that 
we  must  expect  different  physical  characteristics  in  those  who  pursue  the  scholarly 
life,  from  others  whose  occupations  are  unlike  them  in  so  many  ways,  and  when  prop- 
erly understood  and  carried  out  we  believe  that  the  advantages  will  be  found  on  the 
side  of  the  scholarly  life. 

In  the  fall  of  1861 1  took  measurement  of  all  the  college  students  in  seven  particu- 
lars, and  have  faithfully  made  these  examinations  of  almost  every  sound  man  since 
connected  with  the  college  up  to  the  present  date.  The  measurements  are  made  of 
the  Freshmen  soon  after  entering,  and  are  repeated  upon  them  near  the  end  of  each  year 
.  5 3  561 


34  CIRCULARS    OF    INFORMATION   FOR   1885. 

of  the  coarse.  Thus  every  man  who  goes  through  college  has  been  observed  five  times. 
These  observations  during  the  first  year  were  the  age,  weight,  height,  chest  girth,  arm 
girth,  fore-arm  girth,  and  body  lift.  The  second  year  the  capacity  of  the  lungs  was 
added,  and  for  the  last  five  years  the  finger  reach  and  the  chest  expansion,  and  for 
the  last  two  years  the  comparative  strength  of  the  two  hands. 

******* 

The  health  of  college,  so  far  as  figures  and  statistics  can  show  it,  must  be  repre- 
sented by  data  of  the  sickness  of  students,  and,  like  the  anthropometric  observations, 
those  of  sickness  are  made  from  all  the  students,  and  by  yearly  reckonings.  During 
these  twenty  years  5,443  different  entries,  not  individuals,  have  been  on  the  annual 
catalogues.  Of  this  number  1,365  were  entered  on  the  sick  list,  representing  those 
who  during  their  course  have  been  absent  from  all  college  duties  on  account  of  sick- 
ness for  more  than  two  consecutive  days  in  term  time.  This  gives  a  per  cent,  of  the 
students  by  entries,  as  at  one  or  more  times  disabled  by  illness,  of  25.26.  A  noticeable 
point  appears  in  the  record  of  sickness  as  possibly  showing  the  healthfulness  of  col- 
lege life;  it  is  the  decrease  of  illness  from  Freshman  to  Senior  year.  The  data  are 
given  in  Table  No.  4,  but  the  fact  of  interest  is  that  while  the  per  cent,  of  Freshmen 
sick  is  20.30,  that  of  the  Seniors  is  19.05. 

It  may  be  thought,  however,  that  as  classes  decrease  in  numbers,  perhaps  the  dimi- 
nution of  sickness  is  only  on  a  par  with  the  numerical  falling  off  of  the  classes.  But 
while  the  health  increase  of  the  course  is  10.18  per  cent.,  the  natural  dropping  out  is 
only  5.95  per  cent. 

The  time  lost  by  sickness,  as  averaged  on  every  student,  is  2.65  days  yearly.  This 
of  course  is  constructively  applied.  Although  but  1,375  students  are  recorded  on  the 
sick  list,  yet  the  number  of  cases  of  sickness  recorded  is  1,725.  This  means  that  some 
have  been  on  the  sick  list  two  or  more  times,  or  25  per  cent,  of  the  whole  number 
sick  ;  and  the  amount  of  time  actually  lost  from  college  exercises  by  each  of  the  sick 
men  has  been  10.39  days  on  the  average. 

The  maladies  of  college  life  are  those  of  youth,  and  not  debility  or  infirmities.  As 
would  be  expected,  colds  and  slight  lung  difficulties  are  the  most  numerous,  consti- 
tuting nearly  one-half  of  the  whole  amount ;  and  while  physical  injuries  stand  second 
on  the  list  of  causes,  it  is  instructive  to  learn  that  no  serious  or  permanent  injury  has 
ever  happened  from  the  gymnastic  exercises,  required  or  voluntary. 

A  natural  inquiry  is,  if  many  of  the  students  have  left  college  on  account  of  ill 
health.  *  *  *  Seventy  are  reported  as  having  left  college  on  account  of  physical 
disability,  or  more  than  three  each  year.  Of  these,  however,  twenty-two,  or  less  than 
one-third  of  the  whole  number,  have  re-entered  and  graduated  with  the  class  next  to 
the  one  which  they  first  entered.  Or,  to  put  it  numerically,  48  out  of  2,106,  or  2.27 
per  cent,  of  our  students,  failed  in  their  college  course  on  account  of  sickness.  Do  the 
records  of  other  occupations  appear  more  favorably  ? 

By  the  laws  of  viability,  or  chance  of  life  in  males  from  birth,  as  established  by 
census  returns  and  life  insurance  tables,  this  "  chance  of  life,"  the  world  over,  de- 
creases from  the  ages  of  15  or  16  on  to  25,  then  rises  to  30,  and  then  falls  to  the  end  of 
our  existence.  Or  the  curve  of  viability  ascends  rapidly  from  birth  to  15  or  16  years, 
and  then  slowly  descends  to  old  age.  But  by  the  Health  Records  of  our  students  we 
find  a  variation  from  this  law,  since  we  learn  that  sickness  diminishes  in  our  life  here 
from  18  to  22  years  of  age.  This  fact,  with  some  others  already  mentioned,  discrimi- 
nates in  favo'-  of  the  healthfulness  of  student  life. 

******* 

Another  subject  illustrated  by  this  department  and  its  statistics  is  the  amount  of 
growth,  and  is  seen  in  Table  No.  6.  This  embraces  many  of  the  students  who  have 
completed  the  course,  or  given  the  data  at  entering  and  graduating,  with  a  difference 
in  time  of  three  years  and  six  months,  and  an  age  of  19.2  and  22.11.  Seven  hundred 
and  forty-nine  men  have  been  measured,  and  these  have  furnished  5,160  items  of  the 
562 


PHYSICAL   TRAINING   IN   AMERICAN    COLLEGES.  35 

seven  different  points  of  observation.  Of  all  these  men  measured,  26.15  per  cent,  give 
an  increase  iu  all  the  items  during  the  whole  period  observed.  And  47.39  per  cent, 
of  the  men  show  some  of  the  same  measurements  at  Senior  as  at  Freshman  year.  And 
it  is  not  the  oldest  or  those  least  developed  in  whom  this  occurs.  And  53.40  per  cent, 
give  one  or  more  items  less  at  Senior  than  Freshman  year,  and  28.17  give  one  or  more 
items  less,  and  also  one  or  more  the  same.  Of  the  items  measured,  however,  a  differ- 
ent showing  is  made.  The  average  of  the  whole  5,160  items  shows  76.97  per  cent,  in- 
creased during  the  course^  13.58  per  cent,  less  at  the  end  of  the  course,  and  9.43  per 
cent,  the  same  as  at  entrance  to  college,  and  it  will  be  seen  that  some  men  give  both 
increased  and  diminished  items:  some  items  may  be  smaller  and  some  items  be  larger 
at  the  same  time.  The  average  increase  of  the  26  per  cent,  of  these,  in  weight  has 
been  12.27  pounds,  1.05  inches  in  height,  1.45  in  chest  girth,  0.85  inches  in  arm  girth, 
0.685  in  fore-arm  girth,  28.4  cubic  inches  in  lung  capacity,  and  nearly  4.50  times  in 
body  lift.  This  is  what  the  college  student  may  expect  to  grow  from  the  19th  to  the 
23d  year  of  his  life.  The  items  and  points  of  increase  may  be  found  in  Table  No.  6. 

A  part  of  the  work  in  this  department  is  instruction  in  the  general  laws  of  health, 
and  in  anatomy  and  physiology.  The  lectures  in  health  are  given  the  first  term  of 
Freshman  year,  and  the  subjects  are  those  which  specially  pertain  to  student  life,  such 
as  exercise,  food,  use  of  alcohol  and  tobacco,  care  of  the  eyes,  the  relation  of  body  to 
mind,  and  kindred  matters. 

The  instruction  iu  human  anatomy  and  physiology  is  given  by  study  of  a  text-book, 
a  printed  abstract,  and  illustrative  lectures.  Much  of  the  illustration  is  aided  by  the 
clastic  models  of  Auzoux,  nearly  $1,000  worth  of  which  have  been  given  to  the  college 
within  the  past  few  years.  This  study  is  taken  up  early  in  the  Sophomore  year. 
Optional  study  in  comparative  vertebrate  zoology  has  been  carried  on  in  addition  to 
ether  work,  and  can  be  well  illustrated  by  the  collections  in  Appleton  Cabinet. 
**»*#»* 
"In  athletic  sports,  rowing,  base  and  foot  ball,  and  college  games  generally,  this  de- 
partment has  ever  given  encouraging  though  not  inciting  words.  We  have  encouraged 
home  sports  and  games,  and  not  stimulated  the  young  men  to  enter  into  the  hot  and 
violent  contests  with  professional  gamesters.  With  the  example  of  the  oldest  and 
largest  colleges,  and  with  the  comity,  rivalry,  and  good  fellowship  so  largely  existing, 
it  is  but  natural  that  our  college  should  desire  to  compare  its  muscle  and  wind  with 
those  in  similar  positions.  We  have  had  several  trials,  and  been  as  successful  as  we 
ought  to  expect  with  smaller  numbers  to  select  from,  and  some  disadvantages  inci- 
dent to  our  geographical  location. 

In  our  home  athletic  sports  we  have  taken  a  deeper  interest.  The  annual  and  semi- 
annual field  days  have  always  been  well  attended,  both  by  contestants  and  spectators, 
and  we  have  a  good  record.  And  the  preparation  and  participation  in  these  contests, 
this  department  has  ever  regarded  as  a  full  equivalent  for  the  required  gymnasium 
exercises,  as  they  are  always  undertaken  under  leaders,  or  directors,  who  have  carried 
them  through  with  systematic  and  thorough  drill.  And  for  the  training  of  all  the 
students,  it  seems  clear  that  there  are  a  certain  number  who  must  have  these  hard 
and  severe  tests  in  developing  and  maintaining  their  powers  up  to  their  best  possi- 
bilities. 

Besides  the  regular  class  exercises  as  required,  and  the  heavy  work  as  encouraged 
and  allowed,  there  are  always  a  few  who  need  special  exercise  and  advice.  These 
are  attended  to  as  well  as  our  limited  apparatus  will  allow.  But  in  the  coming  near 
future,  when  we  can  see  an  enlarged  and  well  equipped  health  building,  we  may  then 
hope  for  advanced  hygienic  development  in  the  few  who  require  special  training  to 
secure  the  normal  and  healthful  development. 

663 


36 


CIRCULARS    OF    INFORMATION    FOR    1885. 


TABLE  No.  1. — Measure*  of  2,106  different  students  of  Amherst  College,  showing  the  aver- 
ages of  each  class  for  twenty  years,  in  age,  weight,  height,  chest  girth,  arm  girth,  fore-arm 
girth,  lung  capacity,  body  lift,  finger  reach,  chest  expansion,  and  the  comparative  righ  t- 
Tiand  and  left-hand  strength. 


Seniors. 

Juniors. 

Sophomores. 

Freshmen. 

College 
average. 

College 
mean. 

Number  observed  

1  113 

1  148 

1,263 

1  489 

5  013 

Aire  .  . 

22.24 

21.87 

20.57 

19.31 

21.10 

Weight  

142.  ]  9 

140.  59 

139.39 

133.19 

138.84 

131.  00 

Height-  .. 

67.94 

67.86 

67.53 

67.33 

67.66 

67.50 

Cheat  girth  

35.97 

35  61 

35.44 

34.76 

35.40 

35  50 

11.77 

11.72 

11.69 

11.23 

1L19 

11.25 

Fore-arm  girth  

11.21 

11.07 

11.06 

10.80 

11.02 

Lung  capacity   

251.05 

250.07 

249.23 

233.08 

241.79 

230.00 

Body  lift  

11.33 

11.31 

10.58 

a  6i 

10.25 

11.00 

69.72 

69.78 

69.70 

69.60 

69.69 

3.18 

3.33 

3.45 

3.00 

3.02 

Hight-hand  strength  ......... 

92.02 

88.99 

90.45 

87.83 

89.69 

Left-hand  strength  

86.48 

85.98 

86.05 

83.34 

85.50 

Per  cent,  strongest  with  right 

93 

97 

96 

96 

96 

TABLE  No.  2. — Maxima  and  minima  of  every  measurement  of  the  2.106  students  observed. 


2« 

a 

5 

.=    . 

s« 

•  « 

§! 

^a 

1  4 

&i 

3  O 

SJ 

Iw 

ikf. 

?*s 

—  S 

«£ 

N 

a  o 

a-g 

$ 

•<  « 

jig 

» 

w 

3* 

l5 

c'r^a 
n*2 
o  tt  9 

h 

bC.9  J 

fe 

•§ 

M 

I2 

H 

^  c 
O 

Maxima  - 

35.6 

216 

76.5 

43.00 

15.5 

15.50 

426 

65 

81.10 

5.50 

Minima  

15.3 

84 

58.0 

27.25 

8.0 

&25 

115 

2 

48.00 

1.50 

TABLE  No.  3. — The  mean  observation*  of  the  measures  of  Amherst  College  students  for  twenty 
years,  from  a  total  of  34,384. 


a 

a 

A  . 

- 

e.2 

«•§ 

|« 

b 

u 

ij 

•fi  • 

•Sw 
ota 

u 

g,| 

^ 

°1 

ij 

I 

S-*3 

1 

*>  B 

1 

1 

°  fl  « 

f 

£"£, 

1 

J?5 

I 

Sfe 

S"* 

I 

S"™ 

8 

Sf"^ 

a 

• 

£" 

9 
•fc 

r 

1 

s-3 

I 

If 

1 

»-?•""" 

£ 

& 

£ 

176 

69 

72 

104 

40 

61 

14.0 

44 

340 

53 

21 

88 

167 

105 

71 

291 

39 

165 

13.5 

81 

320 

94 

20 

176 

169 

238 

70 

385 

3d 

394 

13.0 

323 

300 

275 

18 

372 

161 

490 

69 

808 

37 

704 

12.5 

602 

280 

608 

16 

610 

143 

798 

68 

955 

36 

1,079 

12.0 

1,117 

260 

871 

14 

790 

185 

1,157 

67 

986 

35 

1,164 

11.6 

1,205 

240 

1,287 

12 

940 

127 

L198 

66 

790 

34 

1,098 

11.0 

1,245 

220 

1,275 

10 

1,075 

119 

982 

65 

571 

33 

682 

10.6 

658 

200 

732 

8 

796 

111 

487 

64 

371 

32 

310 

10.0 

818 

180 

379 

6 

590 

108 

163 

63 

208 

81 

104 

•.6 

77 

160 

148 

4 

302 

95 

46 

62 

65 

80 

41 

9.0 

17 

140 

39 

2 

120 

5.733 

6,534 

6,812 

5  685 

6,761 

5,859 

664 


PHYSICAL    TRAINING    IN    AMERICAN    COLLEGES.  37 

TABLE  No.  4. — Data  of  student  sickness  and  physical  disability  for  nineteen  years  and  nine 
months  in  Amherst  College.     (Students1  names  on  the  annual  catalogues  1861  to  1881,  in 
elusive,  5,443.) 


1? 

|« 

!^ 

Ic  * 

Names  on  sick  list. 

Per  cent,  of  each 
class  to  -whole  col- 
lege. 

Per  cent,  of  sick- 
ness in  each  class 
to  whole  college. 

Seniors  

1  192 

260 

21.90 

19.05 

Juniors  

1,270 

319 

23.33 

23.37 

Sophomores  .                       ....                           .. 

1  465 

386 

26.  92 

28.28 

Freshmen  ... 

1  516 

400 

27.85 

29.30 

Total  

5,443 

1,365 

100.  00 

100.  00 

Students  on  the  sick  list. 1,375 

Cases  (not  individuals)  of  sickness 1, 725 

Cases  on  sick  list  more  than  once  in  the  year 350 

Per  cent,  of  college  on  the  sick  list ...  .  25.  a6 


Maladies  of  the  students,  and  their  proportion,  when  it  equals  one  or  more  per  cent,  of  the 
whole.     (This  is  the  number  of  cases,  not  students.} 


Maladies. 

Per  centv 

Maladies. 

Per  cent. 

Colds  pneumonia  bronchitis  &c  .i.... 

37.4 

2.3 

8  8 

Neuralgia  

1.8 

FebricnlsB               

4  8 

1.7 

4  7 

1.7 

4  6 

Diphtheritic                            

1.1 

Boils  

4.1 

1.1 

General  inability  

3.1 

Teetb              

1.1 

Typhoid  fever  

3.1 

Stomach  •                  

1.1 

Bowels  ....... 

2.6 

1.0 

566 


38 


CIRCULARS    OF    INFORMATION    FOR    1885. 


TABLE  No.  5.— The  measures  of  weight,  height,  chest,  arm  girth,  lung  capacity,  and  body 
lift  of  2,106  different  students  of  Amherst  College,  arranged  by  age. 


Age. 

Number 
of  obser- 
vations. 

Weight. 

Height. 

Chest. 

,  Ann. 

Lung 
capacity. 

Body  lift. 

17  

330 

131  99 

66  60 

33  87 

11  12 

224  8 

8  58 

18  

1  172 

134  07 

66  96 

35  10 

11  36 

238  7 

10  35 

19  

1,511 

135.  84 

67.30 

35.38 

11.52 

240.  3 

10  82 

20  

1,358 

138.  12 

67.95 

35.52 

11.57 

248.8 

10  97 

2J  

1,171 

140.  00 

68.01 

35.58 

11.69 

250.  1 

10  84 

22  ..     . 

807 

141.  07 

68.11 

35.98 

11.77 

250  8 

]0  92 

23  

559 

141.21 

08  31 

36  29 

•  11.71 

257.0 

10  63 

24  

362 

142  42 

68  44 

37  23 

11.74 

261.0 

10  6'J 

25  

216 

145.  12 

68.68 

36.66 

11.79 

263.6 

10.  11 

2«  

141 

144.  91 

68.82 

37.46 

11.81 

262.5 

10  71 

27  

71 

144.  40 

68.30 

36.95 

11.84 

268.4 

10  37 

28  

30 

140.  71 

68.  52 

36.28 

11.57 

269.8 

8  51 

29  

19 

142.  08 

68.09 

36.41 

11.51 

260.  5 

9.86 

80  

18 

146.  50 

69.19 

36.70 

11.61 

279.5 

7.50 

TABLE  No.  6. — Giving  the  measure  of  749  students  of  Amherst  College  at  two  intcrrah 
of  three  years  and  six  months,  and  at  an  average  age  of  nineteen  years  and  two  months  at. 

the  first  observation,  showing  their  physical  development  during  this  period. 

Per  cent. 

Number  of  men  measured 749  •  

"  "  increased  iu  all  items - 196  26.15 

"  "  decreased  in  some  items ., 401  53.40 

"  "  both  same  and  increased  items 355  47.89 

"  "  both  same  and  decreased  items 211  28.17 

Number  of  items  secured 5,160  

"  "  showing  increase ^ 3,972  76.97 

"  "  same  Freshman  and  Senior  year.. 487  9.43 

"  "  less  on  Senior  year 701  13.58 


Weight. 

Height. 

Chest. 

Arm. 

Fore-arm. 

Lung 
capacity. 

Body  lift. 

Greatest  individual  gain  

56.00 

6.00 

6.50 

4.00 

3.50 

1.34 

25.00 

Averages  of  increased  men.  .  . 

12.27 

1.05 

1.45 

0.853 

0.685 

28.4 

4.50 

Per  cent,  of  decreased  items.  . 

11.00 

0.00 

20.31 

13.46 

25.27 

14.64 

20.13 

SYSTEM  OF  REWARDS. 

The  "system  of  rewards"  advocated  by  Dr.  J.  C.  Warren  in  1830,  in 
connection  with  his  suggestion  that  "the  diversions  of  the  gymnasium 
should  constitute  a  regular  part  of  the  duties  of  all  our  colleges  and 
seminaries,"  has  assumed  considerable  proportions,  and  is  considered 
valuable  at  Arnherst.  There  are  three  scholarships  connected  with 
this  department,  and  the  following  prizes  are  annually  competed  for  : 

The  Sawyer  prize,  given  by  the  late  Edmund  H.  Sawyer,  of  Easthampton,  a  gold 
medal  of  the  value  of  fifty  dollars,  for  the  beat  work  in  human  anatomy  and  physi- 
ology. 

566 


PHYSICAL    TRAINING   IN   AMERICAN   COLLEGES.  39 

Gymnastic  prizes:  (1)  The  Gilbert  prize,  given  by  Frederick  Gilbert  of  Cincinnati, 
O.,  class  of  1877,  one  hundred  dollars  to  the  class  which,  during  the  year,  shall  most 
faithfully  discharge  its  duties  in  the  gymnasium,  and  carry  out  most  fully  the  instruc- 
tion of  the  professor  of  hygiene.  (2)  The  Ladd  prize, ;  given  by  William  M.  Ladd 
of  Portland,  Or.,  class  of  1878,  fifty  dollars  a  year  for  excellence  in  heavy  gymnastic 
exercises  at  the  annual  exhibition. 

COLLEGE  GYMNASIA  BUILT  SINCE  1860. 

The  list  of  colleges,  not  to  mention  numerous  high,  normal,  and  pri- 
vate-adventure schools,  which  provided  their  students  with  gymnasia 
during  the  period ^86Q-'81 ,3s  a  considerable  one,  and  includes  such  in- 
stitutions as  the  following  for  young  men :  Beloit,  Bowdoin,  Dartmouth, 
Hamilton,  Oberlin,  Pennsylvania,  Princeton,  Union,  Wabash,  Williams, 
and  Yale  Colleges  j  and  Brown,  California,  Cornell,  Harvard,  Vander- 
bilt,  Wesleyan,  and  Wisconsin  Universities;  and  the  Massachusetts 
Institute  of  Technology,  Phillips  Andover  Academy,  St.  Paul's  School, 
Wjlliston  Seminary,  and  Gushing  Academy;  ancjlSmlth,  Vassal^  and 
Wellesley  Colleges,  and\  Mt.  Holyoke  Seminary  for  young  women.  In 
the  majority  of  cases  instruction,  where  it  has  been  attempted,  has  been 
spasmodic,  unintelligent,  and  half-hearted.  In  a  few  instances  only,  prior 
to  1879,  when  the  new  Hemenway  Gymnasium  was  opened  at  Harvard, 
have  fairly  competent  gymnasts  been  employed.  In  no  case  has  the 
course  adopted  been  so  comprehensively  planned  or  so  carefully  and 
continuously  carried  out  as  at  Amherst.  Ill-advised  expenditures  upon 
buildings,  vague  aims,  and  inadequate  organization,  have  characterized 
the  management  of  most  of  the  attempts  to  institute  departments  of 
physical  training  in  our  superior  schools  and  colleges. 

At  the  request  of  the  Vice-Minister  of  Education  in  Japan,  Mr.  Tanaka- 
Fujimaro,  who  visited  Amherst  in  1876,  Dr.  G.  A.  Leland,  Captain  of 
the  Class  of  1874,  was  designated  by  President  Seelye  to  introduce  the 
Amherst  system  of  gymnastics  into  the  Government  schools  of  Japan. 
For  three  years  Dr.  Leland  was  engaged  in  that  work  to  the  "  high  sat- 
isfaction of  the  Government,"  as  was  officially  communicated  to  Pres- 
ident Seelye. 

Of  the  three  college  gymnasia  built  in  1860,  viz.,  those  at  Amherst, 
Harvard,  and  Yale,  the  last-named  was  the  best  arranged  and  most 
completely  furnished.  The  gymnasium  built  by  Princeton  College  in 
1869  was  until  1879 — the  date  of  the  finest  of  college  gymnasia  as  yet 
erected,  the  Hemenway  Gymnasium  at  Harvard  University — by  far 
the  best  of  its  kind.  Toward  the  total  cost  of  its  site  and  erection, 
$38,000,  Messrs.  R.  Bonner  and  H.  G.  Marquand,  of  New  York  City, 
each  contributed  the  sum  of  $10,000.  The  Bissell  Gymnasium  at  Dart- 
mouth College  should  be  mentioned  in  this  connection.  It  was  built 
through  the  munificence  of  a  Dartmouth  alumnus,  Mr.  G.  H.  Bissell, 
of  New  York  City,  at  a  cost  of  $24,000,  in  1866. 

667 


40  CIRCULARS    OF    INFORMATION    FOR    1885. 

THE  PRINCETON   GYMNASIUM  AND   ITS  ADMINISTRATION. 

On  account  of  its  ancient  pre-eminence,  the  Princeton  gymnasium 
merits  more  than  a  passing  mention.  Thanks  are  due  to  Mr.  George 
Goldie,  for  fifteen  years  its  efficient  superintendent,  for  the  following 
description  of  this  gymnasium  and  the  methods  of  management  there 
in  vogue  in  1882-'83: 

The  building  was  planned  by  George  B.  Post,  of  New  York.  It  is  of  stone,  and  com- 
prises 2  stories  and  a  cellar.  There  are  3  rooms  on  the  ground  floor:  the  main  room, 
30  by  70  feet,  contains  4  bowling  alleys;  the  dressing-room,  78  by  14  feet,  contains 
221  lockers  and  6  wash-basins;  there  is  a  room  70  by  10  feet  for  base-ball  pitching, 
and  there  are  3  shower-baths,  supplied  with  hot  and  cold  water;  also  1  water-closet 
and  1  urinal. 

The  gymnasium  proper  occupies  the  second  floor.  Its  dimensions  are  78  by  52  feet, 
height  to  beams  21  feet,  to  apex  of  roof  45  feet.  It  is  lighted  and  ventilated  by  5  dor- 
mer windows,  1  double  dormer  window  at  the  east  end,  another  at  the  west,  and  by  5 
windows  on  the  south  side,  coming  to  within  3  feet  of  the  floor. 

The  apparatus  consists  of  20  sets  of  chest  and  other  pulley  weights ;  60  pairs  of  In- 
dian clubs,  varying  from  2  to  18  pounds  in  weight;  1,000  pounds  of  dumb-bells;  1 
hand-lifting  machine;  1  set  of  tug-of-war  weights;  1  abdominal  machine;  4  rowing- 
machines;  1  set  of  parallel  bars,  20  feet  long;  1  steel  core,  and  1  graduated  horizontal 
bar;  2  inclined  ladders,  25  feet  long;  1  horizontal  ladder,  30  feet  long;  1  pair  of  fly- 
ing rings;  8  traveling  rings ;  1  platform  spring-board;  1  batule  board;  rack-bars; 
single,  double,  and  flying  trapezes ;  l'e"chelle  ;  peg-pole ;  2  sets  of  chest-poles ;  a 
grip-machine;  climbing-ropes,  and  pole;  5  mattresses;  jumping  and  measuring 
standards,  platform-scales;  and  all  the  apparatus  that  can  be  used  for  the  practice  of 
athletic  sports  indoors. 

The  gymnasium  is  open  from  7  A.M.  to  8.15  A.M.,  12  M.  to  2  P.M.,  and  5  to  6.45  P.M. 
The  characteristic  features  of  the  gymnastic  drill  are  Indian  club  exercise,  with  free 
exercises  for  the  trunk  and  legs.  The  duration  of  the  class  drill  is  thirty  minutes,  in- 
cluding three  rests  of  two  minutes  each.  Two  hours  per  day  are  devoted  to  individ- 
ual and  special  exercise  on  apparatus,  under  the  supervision  of  superintendent.  The 
class  exercises  are  also  led  by  him. 

The  aim  of  the  class  exercise  is  to  give  a  reasonable  amount  of  exercise  to  the  whole 
muscular  system,  so  as  to  secure  a  symmetrical  development,  a  healthy  body,  and  a 
graceful  carriage.  It  has  been  employed  since  1869  to  the  present  time.  i.  e.,  1884. 
From  1869  to  1876  exercise  was  required.  At  the  latter  date  it  was  made  optional,  be- 
canae  the  gymnasium  was  too  limited  in  area,  and  the  time  allowed  for  exercise  too 
short,  to  accommodate  the  increase  in  numbers. 

In  the  autumn  of  1884  the  Indian  club  exercises  and  free-class  gymnas- 
tics were  made  obligatory  for  students  in  the  Freshman  and  Sophomore 
classes.  The  required  exercises  occupy  thirty  minutes  each,  four  times 
weekly,  from  the  first  of  November  till  the  first  of  April.  Mr.  Goldie, 
after  a  continuous  and  successful  service  of  fifteen  years  at  Princeton, 
during  which  his  pupils  gained  the  reputation  of  being  the  most  expert 
college  acrobats  in  the  country,  has  very  recently  assumed  the  charge 
of  the  gymnasium  of  the  New  York  Athletic  Club,  whose  magnificent 
new  building,  on  the  south-west  corner  of  Sixth  avenue  and  Fifty-fifth 
street,  New  York  City,  is  by  far  the  most  complete  of  its  kind  in  America. 

568 


PHYSICAL    TRAINING    IN   AMERICAN    COLLEGES.  41 

STIMULATING  INFLUENCE   OF   THE  WAR  ON  PHYSICAL   TRAINING. 

The  worth  of  a  good  physique  and  the  educational  value  of  physical 
training  were  most  clearly  demonstrated  and  sharply  emphasized  by  the 
lessons  of  the  late  war.  The  unexampled  interest  and  activity  in  ath- 
letic sports  developed  since  the  close  of  the  War,  have  contributed  most 
materially  toward  the  promotion  of  physical  training.  The  youth  of 
the  country  have  been  led  to  engage  more  actively  and  intelligently  in 
athletic  sports  than  ever  before.  Collegiate  and  intercollegiate  con- 
tests in  great  variety  have  attained  to  great  prominence  and  favor  in 
the  estimation  of  the  general  public,  as  well  as  of  the  college  world.  The 
discussion  of  the  question  of  athleticism  in  colleges  will  engage  our 
attention  in  its  proper  place,  but  meanwhile  the  fact  should  be  empha- 
sized that  the  best  that  has  been  done  during  the  last  fifteen  years 
toward  the  erection  of  gymnasia,  the  purchase  and  laying  out  of  play- 
ing fields,  and  the  organization  of  college  departments  of  physical  train- 
ing, has  resulted  from  the  demands  and  endeavors  and  benefactions  of 
the  younger  generation  of  college  men,  who  have  themselves  experienced 
or  witnessed  the  beneficial  effects  of  gymnastic  exercises  and  athletic 
games. 

DEPARTMENT   OF  PHYSICAL   TRAINING  AT  HARVARD  UNIVERSITY. 

Next  to  the  athletic  revival,  the  cause  of  physical  education  in  Amer- 
ica has  received  its  greatest  impetus,  in  recent  years  at  least,  from  the 
organization  by  Harvard  University  in  1879  of  a  new  department  of 
physical  training,  in  connection  with  the  Hemenway  Gymnasium,  for 
whose  erection  and  equipment  Mr.  Augustus  Hemenway  of  Boston,  a 
graduate  of  Harvard  in  1876,  gave  the  sum  of  $110,000.  President 
Eliot,  who  had  again  and  again  pointed  out  the  insufficiency  of  the  old 
gymnasium,  was  a  boating  man  in  his  day,  and  is  still  a  bold  rider  and 
an  enthusiastic  yachtsman. 

THE  HEMENWAY  GYMNASIUM. 

The  Hemenway  Gymnasium  was  built  according  to  the  plans  of 
Messrs.  Peabody  and  Stearns,  the  well-known  architects  of  Boston. 
Mr.  Peabody  was  renowned  as  a  successful  athlete  when  a  student  at 
Harvard.  Dr.  D.  A.  Sargent,  a  graduate  of  Bowdoin  College  in  1875, 
and  of  the  Yale  Medical  School  in  1878,  was  appointed  to  take  charge 
of  the  new  department,  with  the  title  of  Assistant  Professor  of  Phys- 
ical Training  and  Director  of  the  Hemenway  Gymnasium.  The  gymna- 
isinm  was  furnished  with  a  full  set  of  Dr.  Sargent's  developing  appli- 
ances, and  has  ever  since  it  was  opened  been  managed  in  accordance 
with  the  system  of  training  known  as  the  Sargent  system — a  system, 
be  it  said,  more  comprehensive,  practical,  and  scientific,  than  any  hith- 
erto attempted  or  adopted  in  any  college. 

569 


42 


CIRCULARS    OF    INFORMATION    FOR    188.", 


Dr.  Sargent's  reputation  and  success  are  due  to  his  practical  knowl- 
edge of  athletics  (he  was  a  stroke  oar  and  the  most  accomplished  ath- 
lrU>  of  his  day  at  Bowdoin) ;  to  his  experience  as  a  teacher  of  gymnas- 
tics at  Bowdoiu  and  at  Yale  and  in  New  York  City,  before  he  went  to 
Cambridge;  and  to  his  inventive  genius,  which  enabled  him  to  embody 
the  results  of  his  experience  and  his  studies  in  the  varied  series  of  gym- 
nastic machines  which  bear  his  name. 


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Dressing 


Ground  plan  of  the  Hemenway  Gymnasium,  Harvard  University,  Cambridge,  Mass. 
Description  of  the  Building. 

The  following  description,  compiled  from  authentic  sources,  may  serve 
to  explain  the  views  and  ground  plan  of  the  Hemenway  Gymnasium,  as 
printed  in.this  Report.  The  building,  which  is  on  the  "Holmes  Field," 
faces  on  Kirkland  street,  and  is  built  of  brick,  with  sandstone  triin- 

570 


PHYSICAL    TRAINING   IN   AMERICAN    COLLEGES.  43 

mings,  in  the  colonial  style  of  architecture.  The  roof  is  covered  with 
red  slate,  and  is  surmounted  by  a  cupola,  the  top  of  which  is  98  feet  from 
the  ground.  The  building  is  125  feet  long  by  113  feet  wide.  Over  the 
main  window,  fronting  on  Kirkland  street,  the  coat-of-arrns  of  the  college 
is  carved  in  freestone.  The  main  entrance  is  by  way  of  an  elaborate 
porch.  There  is  an  outer  and  an  inner  vestibule.  From  the  latter  is 
a  flight  of  stairs,  made  of  North*  river  bluestone,  with  iron  balusters. 
On  the  right  is  an  office,  12  feet  by  15,  finished  with  enameled  bricks. 
Opening  from  this  is  the  dressing-room,  103  feet  by  15,  containing  sev- 
eral hundred  lockers,  through  which  steam-pipes  pass  for  drying  the 
clothing.  On  the  same,  or  east  side  of  the  building,  there  are  2  bath 
and  toilet  rooms,  25  by  30  feet  each,  and  between  them  is  a  room,  10  feet 
by  12,  arranged  for  vapor  and  needle  baths,  with  appliances  for  giving 
a  lateral,  vertical,  and  descending  shower.  Three  doors  open  from  the 
west  side  of  the  dressing-room  into  the  main  hall,  over  which  extends 
an  iron  framework,  arranged  with  sliding  eye-bolts  and  beams,  so  that 
the  swinging  apparatus  can  be  suspended  from  any  point.  On  the  left- 
hand  side  of  the  hall  is  an  apartment  for  developing  apparatus  and  a 
semi-circular  room  intended  for  an  armory.  The*  main  hall  is  very  ele- 
gant, the  walls  being  of  red  and  yellow  bricks,  and  the  wood- work  of 
hard  pine.  It  is  113  by  85  feet,  with  an  open  roof,  having  hard  pine, 
open-timbered  trusses  resting  on  large  brackets. 

On  the  second  floor  there  is  a  room,  25  by  30  feet,  for  the  exhibition 
of  trophies  and  for  committee  meetings ;  and  a  rowing-room,  70  by  20 
feet,  shut  in  from  the  rest  of  the  building  by  a  high  wooden  screen,  and 
containing  16  rowing-machines.  At  the  level  of  the  second  floor  a  gal- 
lery, 5  feet  wide,  that  runs  around  the  main  hall,  is  used  as  a  running- 
track.  On  this  floor,  above  the  north  bath-room,  are  the  director's  office, 
25  by  30  feet,  and  two  examining-rooms,  each  10  by  15  feet.  In  the  base- 
ment at  the  north  end  is  a  room,  90  feet  by  30,  reserved  for  base-ball, 
lacrosse,  and  tennis  practice,  and  inclosed  by  a  heavy  wire  netting.  In 
the  basement  are  also  the  fencing-room,  25  feet  by  30 ;  the  sparring- 
room,  25  feet  by  30;  the  store-room,  25  feet  by  25;  the  boiler-room,  15 
feet  by  20;  the  room,  15  feet  by  25,  containing  the  water-closets;  some 
hundreds  of  lockers;  and  8  bowling-alleys,  72  feet  by  5.  The  whole 
building  is  heated  by  steam,  and  is  ventilated  by  means  of  fly  win- 
dows and  a  cupola. 

Fittings  of  the  Hemenway  Gymnasium. 

The  cost  of  furnishing  the  Hemenway  Gymnasium  amounted  to  nearly 
$4,000.  The  fitting  was  done  in  accordance  with  Dr.  Sargent's  direc- 
tions, very  many  of  the  appliances  having  been  devised  by  him.  Sub- 
joined is  a  list  of  the  apparatus  of  the  Hemenway  Gymnasium : 

(1)  Heavy  apparatus. — Twelve  mats;  2  vault  ing  bars  ;  3  horizontal  bars,  suspended ; 
3  pairs  parallel  bars,  different  sizes;  1  pair  fixed  flying  rings  ;  2  pairs  adjustable  flying 
rings;  16  traveling  rings ;  2  double  trapezes ;  2  single  trapezes ;  3  fly  ing  trapezes;  1  bal- 

671 


44  CIRCULARS    OP    INFORMATION   FOR   1885. 

ancing  trapeze ;  1  triple-barred.e'chelle ;  2  pairs  hanging  ropes ;  2  knotted  hanging 
ropes;  1  slack  rope;  3. suspended  poles;  1  spring  board;  1  leaping  board;  1  rope 
ladder;  2  peak  ladders ;  2  slanting  ladders ;  1  vertical  ladder;  3  horizontal  ladders; 
2  plain  vaulting  stands  ;  2  adjustable  vaulting  stands;  1  jumping  platform;  1  pole 
vaulting  platform  ;  1  running  platform. 

The  swinging  apparatus  is  suspended  from  an  iron  framework,  in  which  the  cross- 
ties  are  adjustable  and  the  eye  bolts  are  made  to  move  in  grooves. 

All  the  apparatus  is  so  arranged  that  it  can  be  pulled  out  of  the  way  in  a  few 
moments,  by  a  system  of  ropes  and  pulleys,  thereby  leaving  the  floor  clear  for  class 
exercises. 

(2)  Dr.  Sargent's  developing  appliances. —  One  foot  machine ;  1  ankle  machine ;  2 
wrist  machines ;  1  foot  rotating  machine ;    1  pronator  machine ;    1  supinator  ma- 
chine ;  1  back  and  loins  machine ;  1  leg  machine  (chair  form) ;  2  finger  machines ; 
1  lifting  machine;  2  extensor  leg  machines ;  2  flexor  leg  machines ;  1  abdominal  ma- 
chine ;  1  head-balancing  machine ;  1  rowing  machine  (weight  attachment) ;  18  row- 
ing machines  (hydraulic);  1  paddling  machine;  2  sets  inclined  parallels;  2  sets 
vertical  parallels ;  2  sets  traveling  parallels  ;  1  pair  balancing  parallels ;  1  adjustable 
ladder ;  1  folding  table ;  1  peg  pole ;  4  chest  expanders  ;  2  chest  developers;  30  pairs 
chest  weights  (plain) ;  10  pairs  chest  weights  (swivel  pulley);  6  pairs  back  and  side 
pulleys ;  5  pairs  high  pulleys;  2  single,  one-arm  pulleys :  2  quarter  circles  ;  2  travel- 
ing horizontal  bars ;  1  pair  rack  bars ;  1  long  inclined  plane  for  chest  and  arms ;  2 
short  inclined  planes  for  lower  extremities ;  2  pairs  treadles  (weight  attachment) ;  2 
pairs  stirrups  (weight  attachment) ;  2  bridles  (weight  attachment) ;  40  pairs  Indian 
clubs  (2J  to  8  pounds)  ;  .40  pairs  wooden  dumb-bells;  36  pairs  iron  dumb-bells  (5  to 
125  pounds),;  40  wands. 

(3)  Dressing  and  bathing  facilities. — Eight  hundred  and  forty  lockers ;  5  tub-bath 
rooms ;  9  sponge-bath  rooms;  1  shower-bath  room  (needle,  vertical,  and  lateral  shower 
and  douche) ;  12  wash-bowls ;  private  bath-room  (2  tubs  and  2  bowls). 

Bathing  and  dressing  accommodations  are  inadequate,  and  a  swimming-bath  is 
contemplated. 

(4)  Measuring  apparatus,  etc.,  in  examining  room. —  One  pair  of  scales;  dynamom- 
eters, for  testing  strength  of  back,  legs,  arms,  and  chest;  spirometer,  for  testing 
strength  of  lungs ;  spirometer,  for  testing  capacity  of  lungs ;  bars  and  rings,  for  test- 
ing strength  of  various  parts ;  measuring  rods  and  tape. 

The  annual  cost  of  carrying  on  the  gymnasium  is  about  $6,000,  in- 
cluding the  salary  of  the  Director. 

CONCERNING  DR.  SARGENT'S  DEVELOPING  APPLIANCES. 

Dr.  Sargent's  remarks  concerning  the  nature  and  purpose  of  the  appa- 
ratus, together  with  his  exposition  of  his  method  of  physical  training, 
are  in  point  here : 

The  gymnasium,  as  a  whole,  is  large  enough,  and  has  sufficient  apparatus,  to  accom- 
modate two  hundred  and  fifty  men  at  one  time  and  allow  each  one  all  the  room  neces- 
bary ;  but  if  a  run  should  be  made  on  one  kind  of  apparatus,  although  there  are  many 
duplicates,  it  would  of  course  be  impossible  to  meet  it.  A  dressing-room,  with  lockers 
and  bathing  facilities  enough  to  accommodate  the  whole  university  at  one  time,  and 
give  each  man  ample  room,  would  require  a  building  about  twice  the  size  of  the 
present  gymnasium,  while  the  number  of  bowling-alleys  demanded  between  three 
and  five  o'clock  would  more  than  cover  the  entire  floor-surface  of  the  building. 
Everything  has  been  planned  and  arranged  to  meet  the  probable  wants  of  the  average 
student,  aud  to  satisfy  the  claims  of  the  greatest  number.  Those  who  do  nothing 
but  bowl  ought  not  to  regard  the  rest  of  the  apparatus  as  useless;  nor  does  it  become 
572 


PHYSICAL    TRAINING   IN    AMERICAN    COLLEGES.  45 

those  who  aspire  to  athletic  fame,  to  undervalue  the  importance  of  ligkt  gymnastics. 
Every  one  has  a  right  to  enjoy  his  favorite  exercise ;  but  before  carrying  it  too  far,  it 
behooves  him  to  consider  whether  he  is  not  riding  a  hobby.  What  is  the  best  exer- 
cise for  one  man  may  be  the  worst  for  another ;  and  an  attempt  to  pursue  an  inap- 
propriate course,  without  regard  to  constitutional  or  organic  differences,  has  often 
led  to  physical  bankruptcy  and  ruin. 

.  The  old-fashioned  gymnasia  are  filled  with  crude  appliances  that  have  been  handed 
down  in  stereotyped  forms  for  several  centuries  [sic].  To  use  this  apparatus  with 
benefit,  it  is  necessary  for  one  to  have  more  strength  at  the  outset  than  the  average 
man  possesses.  A  man  must  make  use  of  that  apparatus  which  his  physical  condition 
permits.  If  he  has  strength  euough  to  lift  with  ease  his  own  weight,  well  and  good ; 
then  work  on  the  heavy  apparatus  will  prove  beneficial  to  him ;  if  he  has  not,  the 
liability  to  strains  and  injuries,  and  the  enormous  expenditure  of  nerve-power  neces- 
sary to  keep  his  muscles  up  to  their  highest  tension,  more  than  counterbalance  the 
good  effect  of  the  exercise.  When  it  is  considered  that  only  one  man  in  five  can  raise 
his  own  weight  with  ease,  the  need  of  introductory  apparatus  to  prepare  one  for  the 
beneficial  use  of  the  heavy  appliances  becomes  quite  apparent.  It  was  the  realization 
of  this  need  that  led  to  the  invention  of  the  numerous  contrivances  that  have  been 
introduced  into  the  Hemenway  Gymnasium ;  the  desire  to  strengthen  certain  muscles, 
in  order  to  accomplish  particular  feats  on  the  higher  apparatus,  was  the  original  mo- 
tive of  their  invention.  The  results  which  followed  were  so  satisfactory  that  the 
same  appliances  were  afterward  used  as  a  means  of  attaining  a  harmonious  develop 
ment. 

For  this  last-named  purpose  each  machine  has  its  own  use.  Each  is  designed  to 
bring  into  action  one  or  more  sets  of  muscles,  and  all  can  be  adjusted  to  the  capacity 
of  a  child  or  of  an  athlete.  There  are  in  all  fifty-six  of  these  numbered  appliances, 
twenty  of  which  are  duplicated.  In  order  to  make  the  gymnasium  complete,  all  the 
old-style  apparatus  has  been  added,  with  improvements  in  form,  structure,  and  ar- 
rangement. The  pulley  weights  run  on  steel  rods  in  wooden  boxes.  In  many  cases 
the  radii  of  the  rings,  bars,  etc.,  can  be  readily  lengthened  or  shortened.  The 
side  rings  are  made  stirrup-shaped,  and  are  covered  with  rubber.  The  hand-ropes 
are  made  of  cotton,  and  these,  together  with  the  hanging  poles  and  flying  rings,  are 
all  capable  of  adjustment.  In  order  to  protect  the  hands  the  ladder  rungs  are  pol- 
ished, and  the  horizontal  section  is  divided  into  one,  two,  and  four  feet  distances. 
The  horizontal  bars  are  centered  with  steel  rods  and  hung  from  the  iron  framework  by 
shipper  wire.  The  vaulting  bar  is  also  centered  with  a  steel  rod,  capped  with  brass, 
and  pivoted  two  inches  below  the  middle  line.  Considering  the  accidents  that  have 
occurred  on  this  apparatus  from  "slatting,"  the  above-mentioned  improvement  will 
be  appreciated.  The  parallel  bars  have  been  shaped  to  the  form  of  the  hand,  and  one 
pair  is  adjustable.  The  springboards,  which  in  most  gymnasia  are  so  difficult  to 
manage,  have  been  placed  on  iron  pedestals  in  gliding  and  pivoting  sockets.  This 
improvement  facilitates  the  action  of  the  boards  and  lessens  their  wear  and  tear. 

Concerning  the  apparatus  as  a  whole,  it  may  be  said  that  everything  is  arranged  in 
a  progressive  series.  It  is  possible  for  a  person  to  pass  from  the  simplest  movement 
in  calisthenics  up  to  the  most  difficult  gymnastic  feat,  without  experiencing  lameness 
for  a  day.  Easy  adaptation  to  the  capacity  of  the  individual  and  facility  of  applica- 
tion for  remedying  local  defects  and  weaknesses  are  the  distinguishing  characteris- 
tics of  the  apparatus  in  the  new  Henaenway  Gymnasium. 

DR.  SARGENT'S  VIEWS  ON  EXERCISE. 

The  object  of  physical  training  with  us  is  not  to  make  men  active  and  strong,  as 
much  as  it  is  to  make  them  healthy  and  enduring.  Perfect  health  implies  a  condition 
in  which  all  parts  of  the  body  are  properly  nourished  and  harmoniously  developed— 
in  which  the  vital  organs  are  sound,  well  balanced,  and  capable  of  performing  their 

573 


46  CIRCULARS   OF   INFORMATION   FOR   1885. 

functions  to  the  fullest  extent.  The  researches  of  the  physiologists  have  shown  that 
whenever  a  certain  organ  or  class  of  organs  becomes  relatively  too  small  or  large, 
causing  a  want  of  balance  or  harmony  in  their  action,  there  is  in  every  case  far 
greater  liability  to  disease.  It  is  in  imperfect,  ill-balanced  organizations  that  we 
find  the  greatest  amount  of  sickness,  and  the  greatest  number  of  incurable  disor- 
ders. It  is  the  weak  spot,  caused  by  inheritance,  acquired  by  exposure,  close  confine- 
ment, overwork,  etc.,  that  invites  disease  and  death,  even  though  the  rest  of  the 
system  may  be  in  perfect  condition.  To  attain  a  perfect  structure,  harmony  in  devel- 
opment, and  a  well-balanced  organism,  is  our  principal  aim. 

In  order  to  go  about  our  work  intelligently,  we  first  take  a  number  of  body  meas- 
urements, which  are  compared  with  a  standard  for  the  given  age.  We  then  test  the 
strength  of  various  parts,  examine  the  heart,  lungs,  etc.,  and  solicit  as  much  of  the 
student's  history  as  will  throw  light  on  his  inherited  tendencies.  From  the  data  thus 
obtained  a  course  of  exercise  is  prescribed  which  is  in  every  way  desigmed  to  meet 
the  demands  of  his  particular  case.  Let  us  take  a  few  illustrations: 

No.  1  has  a  flat  chest  and  is  predisposed  to  consumption.  If  he  is  admitted  to  a 
gymnasium  and  left  to  his  own  discretion,  the  chauces  are  that  he  will  exhaust  his 
vital  energy  in  going  from  one  thing  to  another  before  he  has  given  his  lungs  and 
chest  the  special  attention  which  they  need.  His  wants  are  best  subserved  by  speci- 
fying the  work  most  suitable  for  him,  and  by  adopting  the  apparatus  best  adapted  to 
his  peculiar  condition. 

No.  2  has  a  weak,  irregular  heart  and  poorly-developed  back  and  legs.  Systematic 
rowing  and  running  at  a  slow  pace  are  admirably  adapted  for  toning  up  the  heart 
and  strengthening  the  muscles  of  the  back  and  legs,  and  are  prescribed  as  special  ex- 
ercises with  limitations. 

No.  3  is  nervous  and  excitable,  inclined  to  do  everything  at  a  breakneck  speed, 
thereby  drawing  upon  the  very  power  which  it  is  for  his  interest  to  conserve.  In  this 
case  a  list  of  exercises  is  prescribed  which  are  calculated  to  deaden  nervous  sensibil- 
ity by  increasing  muscular  strength. 

No.  4  is  bilious  or  lymphatic,  and  is  given  the  opposite  course  from  that  prescribed 
for  No.  3 ;  and  so  on. 

^There  the  muscular  system  only  needs  development,  the  pupil  is  directed  at  first  to 
those  appliances  which  are  designed  to  strengthen  his  weak  parts.  After  he  has  be- 
come more  symmetrical  his  exercises  are  made  more  general.  For  the  benefit  of  those 
who  simply  need  exercise  without  special  training,  a  number  6f  appliances  have 
been  introduced,  which  are  so  constructed  that  they  can  be  readily  adjusted  to  the 
"  strength  of  the  strong  and  the  weakness  of  the  weak."  No  long  instruction  ia 
needed  to  make  this  apparatus  available.  It  is  only  necessary  to  explain  the  desired 
movements  once,  and  the  results  which  follow  will  tell  how  well  they  have  been  car- 
ried out.  Besides  the  developing  appliances  we  have  a  great  variety  of  swings,  bars, 
ladders,  etc. ;  but  before  the  student  is  allowed  to  use  them  he  must  give  evidence  of 
a  certain  amount  of  preparatory  training. 

This,  in  short,  is  the  system  pursued  at  Harvard,  where  there  is  no  systematic  in- 
struction, and  where,  after  an  order  of  exercises  has  been  once  prescribed,  everything 
is  left  to  the  option  of  the  student.  How  well  the  system  works  may  be  learned  from  an 
inspection  of  the  gymnasium  records,  which  are  always  open  to  the  public.  The  second 
examinations  show  results  which  are  very  suggestive,  if  not  a  little  startling.  They 
have  led  me  to  conclude  that  half  the  young  men  who  come  to  college  are  physically 
in  arrears,  i.  e.,  their  brains  have  been  developed  at  the  expense  of  their  physique. 
The  rapid  gain  in  health,  strength,  and  size  of  students  and  professors  (though  more 
advanced  in  years)  during  the  first  three  or  four  months  of  their  gymnastic  training 
can  only  be  accounted  for  on  this  ground.  Our  best  scholars  fail  for  want  of  body, 
not  for  want  of  brain. 

.  574 


PHYSICAL    TRAINING   IN   AMERICAN    COLLEGES.  47 

The  chief  characteristics,  then,  of  the  Sargent  system  of  training,  as 
originally  introduced  for  educational  purposes  at  Harvard,  are — 

(1)  It  is  based  on  a  careful  physical  diagnosis. 

(2)  Exercise,  diet,  etc.,  are  prescribed  in  each  individual  case  in  the 
light  of  such  diagnosis. 

(3)  Besides  the  ordinary  light  and  heavy  gymnastic  appliances, 
machines  designed  to  produce  definite  localized  effects  in  development 
can  be  employed  to  insure  symmetry,  and  to  remedy  specific  defects  or 
departures  from  the  normal  standard  of  strength  or  development. 

NATURE  OF  PHYSICAL  EXAMINATION. 

With  the  exception  of  some  slight  modifications  of  detail,  made  to 
suit  the  convenience  or  peculiar  notions  of  certain  examiners,  the  fol- 
lowing course  of  procedure  is  followed  in  examining  individuals,  male 
or  female,  under  the  system : 

(a)  The  person  to  be  examined  fills  out  the  following  "history  blank" 
in  his  own  handwriting : 

Name, 

Class  and  department,  or  occupation, 

Age,  .    Birthplace, 

Nationality  of — 
Father, 
Mother, 

Paternal  grandfather, 
"       grandmother, 
Maternal  grandfather, 
"        grandmother, 

Occupation  of  father, 

If  parents  are  dead,  of  what  did  they  die  f 

Which  of  your  parents  do  yon  most  resemble  T 

Is  there  any  hereditary  disease  in  your  family  f 

Is  your  general  health  good  t 

Have  you  always  had  good  health  T 

Have  you  ever  had  any  of  the  following  diseases : 

Asthma,  Bronchitis,  Chronic  diarrhea, 

Dizziness,    •  Dyspepsia,  Dysentery, 

Gout,  Rheumatism,  Neuralgia, 

Pleurisy,  Shortness  of  breath,  Jaundice, 

Palpitation  of  the  heart,        Headaches,  Piles, 

Pneumonia,  Varicose  veins,  Liver  complaint, 

Habitual  constipation,          Spitting  of  blood,  Paralysis  f 

Have  yon  ever  had  any  injury  or  undergone  any  surgical  operation? 

(6)  The  examiner  makes  a  series  of  measurements  and  tests  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  following  form,  to  determine  the  physical  peculiari- 
ties as  regards  weight,  height,  development,  strength,  and  condition 
of  the  person  under  examination.  The  results  of  this  examination, 
which  is  made  upon  the  naked  man,  are  carefully  recorded,  according 

575 


48 


CIRCULARS    OF    INFORMATION    FOR    1885. 


to  the  metric  system,  the  strength  being  determined  by  dynamometers 
graduated  to  show  kilograms  of  force: 


ITEMS  NOTED  AND  RECORDED. 


Number, 

Date, 

Age, 

Weight, 

Height, 

of  knee, 
sitting, 
pnbes, 
navel, 
sternum, 
Girth  of  head, 
neck, 

chest,  full, 
chest,  repose, 
belly, 
hips, 

right  thigh, 
left  thigh, 
right  knee, 


Girth  of  left  knee, 
right  calf, 
left  calf, 
right  instep, 
left  instep, 
upper  right  arm, 
upper  left  arm, 
right  elbow, 
left  elbow, 
right  fore-arm, 
•     left  fore-arm, 
right  wrist, 
left  wrist, 
Breadth  of  head, 
neck, 
shoulders, 
waist, 
hips, 
nipples, 


Right  shoulder  elbow, 
Left  shoulder  elbow, 
Right  elbow  tip, 
Left  elbow  tip, 
Length,  right  foot, 

left  foot, 
Stretch  of  arms, 
Capacity  of  lungs, 
Strength  of  lungs, 
back, 


upper  arm, 
fore-arm, 

Total  strength, 

Development, 

Pilosity, 

Color,  hair, 
eyes. 


(c)  After  comparing  the  results  obtained  by  the  above-mentioned 
tests  and  measurements  with  the  standards  for  average  healthy  per- 
sons of  the  age  given,  and  taking  into  consideration  any  functional  or 
structural  peculiarities  which  his  observations  or  questions  may  have 
brought  to  light,  the  examiner  makes  his  prescription  regarding  exer- 
cise, diet,  sleep,  air,  bathing,  clothing,  &c.  For  the  sake  of  conven- 
ience this  prescription  is  frequently  given  in  the  shape  of  a  small  hand- 
book or  card,  so  marked  by  the  examiner  that  the  person  receiving  it 
is  plainly  directed  as  to  the  regimen  he  had  best  follow.  Ke-examina- 
tions  are  made  and  prescriptions  are  repeated  or  modified  from  time  to 
time,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  case. 

The  system  of  measurements  above  described  has  superseded  at  Ain- 
herst  College  that  originally  introduced  there  by  Dr.  Hitchcock.  Dr. 
Sargent  and  his  followers,  including  several  women  trained  under  his 
direction,  have  accumulated  a  great  and  growing  mass  of  anthropo- 
metrical  data,  which  cannot  fail  to  be  of  value  in  determining  the  phys- 
ical constants  of  growing  males  and  females,  especially  of  the  student 
class.  It  is  to  be  hoped  that  these  data  may  soon  be  available  for  pub- 
lication and  discussion. 

The  subjoined  tables,  already  published,  No.  8  by  Dr.  Sargent,  and 
Nos.  7,  9,  and  10  by  Dr.  Hitchcock,  are  of  interest  in  this  connection. 

576 


PHYSICAL    TRAINING   IN    AMERICAN    COLLEGES. 


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lilliractcrs  

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Weight  in  pounds  and 

Weight  in  kilos  and  tei 

Height  in  inches  ami  h 
Height  in  meters  and  it 

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Lung  capacity  in  cubic 

Lung  capacity  in  liters 
Pull  up,  number  of  tim< 

5068— No.  5- 


577 


50 


CIRCULARS    OF    INFORMATION    FOR    1883. 


TABLE  No.  8. — Strength  and  development  of  the  First  Ten,  according  to  the  tesl*  made  al  the 

NOTE.— The  items  marked  with  an  asterisk  (*)  are  the  girths  -whose  sum  is  taken  as  total  develop- 
the  average  girth  of  the  right  and  left  fore-arms  is  employed  in  computing  total  development.  When 
"total  strength"  is  less  than  tbe  "total  development,"  it  is  marked  minus.  L.  S.  stands  for  law 
age  is  not  printed,  the  previous  record  has  been  accepted  as  entitling  the  person  to  a  position  among 


Name  and  class. 

S, 
•* 

i 

8 

£ 

-ti 

i 
i 

• 

1 
S 

Natural  chest.  * 

Inflated  chest.  * 

« 

1 
£ 

Right  thigh.  * 

Left  thigh.  * 

1 

1880. 
F.  D.  Jordan,  1880  

23 

73 

175.7 

57 

95 

105 

78 

54 

54 

3 

"Walter  Trimble  L.  S      

23 

70 

176.4 

56 

89 

100 

76 

54 

54 

1 

Richard  Trimble,  1880  

21 

74.6 

182.3 

57.3 

92 

99 

78 

56 

55  5 

1 

N.  J.  Stephens  1881    

22 

72 

177.2 

53.5 

93 

101 

76 

54 

53 

5 

R.W  G  Welling  1881             .     . 

21 

80  2 

188.1 

57 

9° 

99 

73 

56 

56 

A 

C.  H.  W.  Foster,  1881   

20 

60.9 

175.9 

55 

91 

98 

70 

55 

54 

7 

James  Otis  1881                       ...... 

21 

84 

182.3 

58 

100 

108 

85 

60 

60 

8 

F.  B.  Keene,  1880  

24 

66.7 

172.4 

57 

90 

100 

74 

51 

51.5 

<> 

S.  W.  Skinner,  1880  

22 

72 

169.5 

56.5 

90 

100 

78 

59 

59 

in 

G.  B.  Morison,  1883  

19 

68.3 

179.4 

54.5 

90 

95 

70 

52 

51 

Average  .... 

21.6 

72.2 

177.9 

56.2 

92.2 

100.5 

75.8 

55.1 

"4  8 

1881 

l 

C.  H.  W.  Foster,  1881  

21 

68.2 

176.5 

55.5 

98 

105 

72 

56 

55 

•> 

R.  S.  Codman.  1883  

19 

72.2 

174.2 

57.3 

97 

103 

76 

57.5 

55  5 

3 

E.  D.  Brandegee,  1881  

23 

77.5 

176.2 

58.4 

98 

106.5 

83 

57 

56.5 

,1 

C.  P.  Curtis,  1883  

20 

68.5 

178 

58 

90 

94 

75 

53 

53 

•t 

N.  J.  Stephens,  1881  

72 

177.2 

53.5 

93 

101 

76 

54 

53 

F, 

R.  W.  G.  Welling,  L.  S  

80.2 

188.1 

57 

92 

99 

73 

56 

56 

7 

G.  B.  Morison,  1883  

20 

71 

179.4 

55.7 

89 

96 

73 

55 

54 

| 

James  Otis,  1881  

84 

182.3 

58 

100 

108 

85 

60 

60 

0 

J.  A.  W.  Goodspeed,  1884  

21 

64.5 

165 

54.5 

85 

96 

73 

50 

50 

10 

O.  J.  Pf  eiffer,  M.  S  

23 

81.2 

182 

58.5 

95 

104 

84 

57 

56.5 

Average  

2L1 

73.9 

177.9 

56.6 

93.7 

101.2 

77 

55.5 

54.9 

1882. 

1 

C  P  Curtis,  1883     .  . 

21 

69.5 

178 

57.8 

94- 

98 

73 

52.5 

52.3 

1 

James  Otis,  L.  S  

23 

85.5 

183 

58 

105- 

113 

86 

59 

59.5 

7 

H.  L  Smyth,  1883  

20 

73 

178.6 

58 

96 

102 

78 

54.5 

54 

•1 

W.  S.  Bryant,  1884  

21 

65.5 

180 

55.5 

92 

97 

71 

52 

52 

| 

A  R.  Crane,  1885  

21 

64.8 

169.3 

56.5 

92 

97 

76 

53.5 

53.5 

fi 

W.  H.  Page,  1883  

21 

69.5 

169.5 

56.5 

90.5 

94.5 

77 

56 

55.5 

7 

L.  A.  Biddle,  1885  

19 

66.6 

172 

58.5 

95 

99.5 

74 

54 

53.5 

| 

G.  B.  Morison,  1883  

21 

71.5 

179.5 

55.7 

93 

96.5 

73 

55 

55 

11 

R.  M.  Bradley,  1882  

21 

66.2 

177 

59 

88 

93 

75 

51 

51 

in 

John  Russell,  1882  

21 

62.1 

172.4 

57.7 

86.5 

97 

72 

51 

52 

Avenge  

20.9 

69.4 

175.9 

57.3 

93.2 

98.7 

75.6 

53.8 

53.8 

578 

PHYSICAL    TRAINING   IN   AMERICAN    COLLEGES. 


51 


Hemenway  Gymnasium,  Harvard  University, during  theyearslSSQ,  1881, 1882, 1883,  and  1864. 

merit.  As  the  average  strength  of  the  right  and  left  hands  is  used  in  computing  the  total  strength,  so 
the  "  total  strength  "  exceeds  the  "  total  development, "  the  "condition"  is  marked  phis.  When  the 
school ;  M.  S.  for  medical  school.  The  measurements  are  according  to  the  metric  system.  "Where  the 
the  First  Ten. 


'Average  of— 

Strength. 

J 

4t 

• 

tc 

| 

* 

i 

• 

S 

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1 

a 

It 

t 

G 

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3 

9 

3 

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1 

3 

£ 

e 

30.5 

30 

27.5 

27 

531 

40 

145 

230 

175.2Q2) 

85 

675.2 

144.2 

1 

35 

35 

27.5 

27 

526.5 

25 

155 

200 

224  G!) 

70 

674 

147.5 

3 

33 

32.5 

27.8 

27 

531.1 

20 

159 

185.5 

223.8  (1?) 

75 

663.3 

132.2 

S 

34 

32 

29 

28 

525.5 

22 

170 

190 

19,4  (g) 

86 

662.4 

136.9 

4 

32 

33 

28 

29 

526 

25 

175 

220 

160.4Q 

80 

660.4 

134.4 

5 

31.5 

31 

28 

27 

513.5 

22 

162 

197 

182.7  (I') 

90 

653.7 

140.2 

6 

36 

36.5 

30.8 

30.8 

574.3 

30 

170 

178 

2-      (Jo") 

59 

647 

72.7 

1 

33 

31.5 

28 

27.5 

516 

25 

131 

186 

233.4  (20) 

68 

643.4 

127.4 

8 

35 

35 

28.5 

27 

541 

23 

160 

167 

223.2  (g) 

67 

640.2 

99.2 

9 

32 

31 

27 

26 

502.5 

20 

160 

165 

232.2  (20) 

55 

632.2 

129.7 

10 

33.2 

32.7 

28.2 

27.6 

528.7 

25.2 

158.7 

191.8 

2059  I"16'3} 

205.9  ^12.6; 

73.5 

655.2 

126.4 

32 

31 

27.5 

26.5 

532 

37 

168 

230 

286.4  (2|) 

80.5 

801.9 

269.9 

1 

34.5 

33.5 

28.3 

28 

542.6 

29 

165 

175 

267.1© 

61 

697.1 

154.5 

2 

36 

36 

29.8 

28.5 

561.2 

25 

180 

215 

193.7  (12) 

80 

693.7 

132.5 

3 

31.5 

30 

28.5 

28 

513 

30 

150 

175 

»•  (S) 

61 

690 

177 

4 

34 

32 

29 

28 

525.5 

22 

170 

190 

194.4  (g) 

86 

662.4 

136.9 

5 

32 

33 

28 

29 

526 

25 

175 

220 

!60.4  (JO) 

80 

660.4 

134.4 

fi 

33.5 

33 

28.5 

28 

517.7 

20 

150 

180 

255.6(22) 

54 

659.6 

141.9 

7 

36 

36.5 

30.8 

30.8 

574.3 

30 

170 

178 

210      f15"i 

210    vio; 

59 

647 

72.7 

8 

30.5 

30 

26 

25.5 

495 

26 

154 

195 

193.5® 

63 

631.5 

136.5 

9 

32.5 

32.5 

30 

29.8 

550 

25 

160 

175 

194.9  (g) 

71 

625.9 

75.9 

10 

33.2 

32.7 

28.6 

28.2 

533.7 

26.9 

164 

193.3 

223      («•«) 

69.5 

676.9 

143.2 

32.5 

32 

29 

28.5 

521.1 

18 

250 

425 

326.6  (jO) 

66 

1085.6 

564.5 

1 

38.5 

39.5 

32 

31.8 

590.5 

27.5 

230 

375 

222.3  (g) 

65 

919.8 

329.3 

t 

34.5 

35.5 

29 

28 

541.5 

20.5 

240 

275 

270.1  (ff) 

65.5 

871.1 

329.6 

i 

31.5 

32 

28.5 

28 

511.6 

18 

200 

325 

229.2  (2|) 

60 

832.2 

320.7 

4 

35.5 

33.5 

27 

26.5 

524.5 

20 

210 

300 

226.8  © 

67.5 

824.3 

299.8 

• 

34 

34 

28.5 

28.5 

526.5 

13 

175 

290 

278      (i;8,) 

60 

816 

289.5 

6 

31 

30 

27 

27 

522.5 

20 

225 

300 

199.8  (lj>) 

58 

802.8 

280.3 

f 

33 

32.5 

28.5 

28 

522.2 

21 

210 

270 

243.1(21) 

56 

800.1 

277.9 

8 

31 

30.5 

26.5 

26 

505 

22 

200 

260 

258.2  (jl) 

59 

799.2 

294.2 

9 

31 

30.5 

26.5 

26 

504.2 

21 

220 

370 

124.2  (JO) 

62 

797.2 

293 

10 

33.2 

33 

28.2 

27.8 

526.9 

20.1 

216 

319 

237.8  (gj) 

61.9 

854.8 

327.9 

679 


52 


CIRCULARS    OF    INFORMATION    FOR    1885. 


TABLE  No.  8. — Strength  and  development  of  the  First  Ten,  according  to  the  tests 


4' 

Name  and  class. 

0 

u 

•4 

1 

• 

* 

Ja 

.3 
"3 

W 

*O 

S 
J 

Katnral  chest.  * 

Inflated  chest.  * 

Waist.  * 

Bight  thigh.  * 

Left  thigh.  * 

1 

1883. 
C.  P.  Curtis,  1883  

69.5 

178 

57.8 

94 

98 

78 

52  5 

52  3 

2 

A  R.  Crane,  1885       

22 

64.5 

169.3 

57 

95.5 

101 

76 

52 

53 

7 

G.  B  Morisoii,  1883  

22 

71 

179.8 

56.5 

94 

100 

72 

53  5 

53  5 

.1 

EL  L.  Smyth,  1883  

73 

178.6 

58 

96 

102 

78 

54.5 

54 

5 

E.  A.  S.Clarke  1884  

21 

87.6 

181 

57 

102 

106 

87 

62   • 

62 

i; 

F  A  P  Fiske  L.  S  

24 

56.6 

167.8 

56  5 

89 

93 

71 

48 

47  5 

1 

C.J.Hubbard  1883  

26 

79.1 

184.5 

58 

93 

102 

82 

56 

56 

g 

W.  H.  Page,  1883  

22 

66.2 

169.5 

56.5 

90.5 

96 

73 

56 

55 

o 

"W:  S.  Bryant,  1884  

65.5 

180 

55.5 

92 

97 

71 

52 

52 

10 

A.  !L.  McRfte,  special  

22 

85.5 

186 

61 

98 

108 

82 

58 

58 

Average  

22.1 

71.8 

177.4 

57  4 

94.4 

100.3 

76.5 

54  4 

54  3 

1 

1884. 
S  L  Foster  1885 

21 

71.8 

168.5 

58 

95 

104 

77 

56 

56  5 

2 

R.  W.  Boyden,  1885  

21 

73.2 

172 

57 

97 

104 

77 

56 

56 

1 

K.  S.  Gorham,  1885  

21 

67.6 

172.3 

56.5 

94 

103 

75 

54 

53 

\ 

C.  P.  Curtis,  L.  S  

69.5 

178 

57.8 

94 

98 

73 

52.5 

52.3 

*, 

Arthur  Keith,  1885  

19 

76.5 

176 

57 

98 

103 

81 

57 

57.5 

e 

T.  C.  Bachelder,  L.  S  

23 

69.2 

171 

58.5 

102 

107 

80 

57 

55.5 

7 

A.  "R.  Crane,  1884  

64  5 

169.3 

57 

95.5 

101 

76 

52 

53 

| 

"W.  J.  Bowen,  1887  

23 

71.7 

172 

56 

95 

100 

76 

57 

57 

0 

E.  A.  S.  Clarke,  1884   

87.6 

181 

57 

102 

106 

87 

62 

62 

10 

F.  A.  P.  Fiske,  L.  S  

56.6 

167.8 

56.5 

89 

93 

71 

48 

47.5 

Average  ..................... 

2L6 

70.8 

172.8 

57.1 

96.1 

101.9 

77.3 

55.1 

56 

580 


PHYSICAL    TRAINING    IN   AMERICAN    COLLEGES. 
made  at  the  Hemenway  Gymnasium,  Harvard  University,  $c. — Continued. 


53 


^Average  of— 

Strength. 

J 

£ 

rt 

B 

1 

*, 

£ 

£ 

a 

1 

i 

P 

§ 

I 

p 

'*"    — 

© 

. 

d  +* 

00 

53 

H 

« 
« 

ii 

g§ 

I 

§> 

I 

* 

00 

• 

ll 

! 

"3 

•a 

a 

I 

1 

S 

s 

P 

1 

W 

«5 

1 

S 

o 
O 

32.5 

32 

n 

28.5 

521.1 

18 

250 

425 

320.6® 

66 

1085.  6 

564.5 

1 

36.5 

35.5 

28 

27.5 

534.5 

25 

250 

325 

290.2® 

73.5 

963.7 

429.2 

s 

33 

32 

29 

28 

523.5 

25 

200 

350 

291.1® 

69 

935.1 

411.6 

8 

34.5 

35.5 

29 

28 

541.5 

20.5 

240 

275 

270.1® 

65.5 

871.1 

329.6 

4 

37 

36.5 

30.8 

31 

580.3 

31.5 

205 

345 

184   r10>i 
1B4    \ll) 

98 

863.5 

283.2 

5 

29.5 

29 

27 

26.8 

490.5 

19 

255 

330 

175.5  (J5) 

78.5 

858 

367.5 

6 

33.8 

33.2 

28 

*28 

542 

28.5 

225 

300 

213.6® 

89 

856.1 

314.1 

7 

33.5 

33.6 

28.8 

28.7 

522.9 

19.5 

200 

275 

291.3® 

67 

852.8 

329.9 

8 

31.5 

32 

28.5 

28 

511.5 

18 

200 

325 

229.2  ® 

60 

832.2 

320.7 

9 

35 

35 

29.5 

29 

564.5 

24 

230 

350 

145.2  (  I) 

67 

816.2 

251.7 

10 

33.7 

33.4 

28.8 

28.3 

533.2 

22.9 

225.5 

330 

241.7  (J1J) 

73.3 

893.4 

360.2 

38 

37 

29.8 

29.5 

551.3 

20.5 

270 

375 

531.3® 

76 

1272.  8 

721.5 

1 

36 

35 

31.3 

30.8 

549.3 

19 

290 

330 

409.9  ® 

93 

1141.  9 

592.6 

8 

36 

34 

31.5 

•29.5 

537 

15 

240 

400 

371.8  g) 

72 

1098.  8 

561.8 

3 

32.5 

32 

29 

28.5 

521.1 

18 

250 

425 

326,6  ® 

66 

1085.  6 

564.5 

4 

34 

33.5 

29.5 

28.8 

550.5 

32 

300 

360 

252.4  ® 

84 

1028.  4 

477.9 

5 

36.5 

36 

31 

30 

563.5 

28 

245 

300 

332.2  ® 

89 

994.2 

430.7 

• 

36.5 

35.5 

28 

27.5 

534.5 

25 

250 

325 

290.2  ® 

73.5 

963.7 

429.2 

T 

33.5 

33 

29 

29 

536.5 

25.5 

190 

340 

243.8® 

73.5 

872.8 

336.3 

8 

37 

36.5 

30.8 

31 

580.3 

31.5 

205 

345 

*  G!) 

98 

863.5 

283.2 

9 

29.5 

29 

27 

26.8 

490.5 

19 

255 

330 

175.5® 

78.5 

858 

367.5 

10 

34.9 

34.1 

29.7 

29.1 

541.4 

23.3 

249.5 

353 

ql1  B  /28.r\ 
iJU-H  \16.S) 

80.3 

1018 

470.5 

581 


54 


CIRCULARS    OF    INFORMATION    FOR    1885. 


TABLE  No.  9. — Bodily  measurements  of  the  students  ofAmherst  College  for  the  years  1881-'82 
to  1883-'84,  inclusive,  averaged  by  years  of  age. 

[This  table  gives  the  average  results  of  the  study  of  461  students  during  the  past  three 
years  in  the  more  than  fifty  measures  and  tests  that  are  applied.  They  are  grouped 
under  the  different  years  from  17  to  25,  inclusive,  and  the  results  are  given  in  kilo- 
grams, meters,  and  millimeters,  except  the  "  capacity  of  lungs,"  which  is  in  liters, 
and  the  "chest  strength,"  the  unit  of  which  is  the  bodily  weight  as  raised  iu  a 
"dip  "and  a  "pull  up."  J 


Years  of  age. 

17. 

18. 

19. 

20. 

21. 

22. 

23.          24. 

25. 

(>•>.  -2 
1.72 
473 
915 
857 
1.  02 
1.40 

573 
357 
925 
880 
741 
900 
509 
357 
345 
238 
277 
250 
247 
260 
164 

155 
110 
423 
260 
326 
190 
370 
454 
258 
1.77 
1.71 
10.7 
138 
5.0 
9.4 
164 
37.1 
4.00 
2.7 

"Weight  .  . 

59.3 
1.71 
472 
897 
869 
1.02 
1.40 

59.7 

1.70 
4G6 
889 
857 
1.00 
1.38 

61.1 
1.71 
469 
900 
858 
1.02 
1.  ?9 

61.3 
1.71 
464 
891 
844 
1.01 
1.S9 

569 
350 
922 
883 
723 
897 
513 
356 
346 
240 
284 
253 
248 
261 
163 

153 
108 
428 
258 
324 
197 
369 
456 
257 
1.77 
1.72 
13.0 
146 
6.2 
8.9 
180 
38.4 
4.01 
2.3 

63.2 
1.72 

477 
904 
863 
1.02 
1.40 

575 
354 
935 
896 
736 
903 
523 
357 
351 
243 
298 
257 
251 
265 
166 

155 
109 
435 
256 
329 
202 
375 
461 
262 
1.80 
1.73 
12.0 
153 
7.0 
9.0 
193 
40.0 
4.10 
2.4 

62.7 
1.71 

474 
902 
860 
1.02 
1.39 

572 
351 
933 
895 
735 
896 
513 
355 
346 
241 
294 
254 
248 
261 
106 

154 
107 
441 
259 
323 
202 
371 
462 
261 
1.79 
1.73 
12.0 
151 
7.0 
9.1 
1»8 
39.9 
4.40 
2.6 

63.1 

1.72 
480 
902 
863 
1.02 
1.41 

575 
358 
934 
899 
747 
901 
525 
358 
345 
242 
301 
261 
253 
266 
167 

156 
109 
437 
259 
330 
201 
376 
466 
262 
1.80 
1.73 
12.6 
159 
8.2 
8.8 
197 
40.9 
4.29 
2.7 

64.7 

1.72 
467 
916 
847 
1.01 
1.4 

572 
356 
942 
908 
753 
911 
527 
358 
360 
247 
297 
258 
254 
264 
167 

155 
108 
438 
266 
332 
201 
378 
461 
261 
1.78 
1.73 
12.0 
154 
7.3 
8.8 
183 
40.7 
4.14 
2.3 

Height. 

Knee        .  .  ..      -       -  -   -  - 

Sitting                      

Pnbes  

Navel  

Girth: 
Head            

568 

337 
887 
853 
703 
872 
501 
356 
337 
236 
275 
242 
•     244 
251 
163 

152 
106 
414 
247 
319 
188 
372 
465 
260 
1.77 
1.73 
10.0 
132 
3.6 
7.6 
166 
33.9 
3.86 
2.1 

568 
341 
903 
865 
717 
875 
501 
354 
340 
237 
279 
247 
243 
253 
162 

152 

106 
428 
247 
321 
192 
367 
460 
257 
1.77 
1.72 
13.0 
132 
5.2 
7.9 
161 
34.  « 
3.01 
2.2 

568 
348 
923 
877 
714 
893 
512 
355 
344 
238 
291 
252 
246 
257 
162 

153 
107 
425 
258 
325 
195 
367 
460 
258 
1.77 
1.72 
13.5 
139 
5.8 
8.8 
172 
36.1 
4.03 
2.2 

Neck                 

Chest  full              

Belly... 

Hips                               

Thighs 

i£ne<j8                      

Insteps  

Bight  upper  arm  contracted  .  .  . 
Upper  arms 

Elbows  

Fore-anus  

Wrists  

Breadth: 
Head  

Neck  

Shoulders  

Waist            

Hips... 

Nipples     

Shoulder  elbows  

Elbow  tips  

Length  of  feet  

Stretch  of  arms            

Horizontal  length                .  .  .... 

Strength  of  lungs                          .... 

of  legs  ,  

Capacity  of  lungs 

PiloBity  

Nnrn^f"'  m^wnrpd    ,  

47 

100 

90 

97 

50 

30 

26 

11  j          10 

Total  ..    . 

461 

583 


PHYSICAL    TRAINING    IN    AMERICAN    COLLEGES. 


55 


TABLE  No.  10.— Statistics  of  bodily  growth  and  development  secured  from  the  class  of 
1884,  in  Amherst  College,  during  junior  and  senior  years. 


Averages  taken 
in  1882. 

Averages  taken 
in  1884. 

Difference. 

Largest  individ- 
ual measure. 

Smallest  individ- 
ual measure. 

Largest  individ- 
ual increase  in 
two  years. 

Weight  

60  5 

62  4 

4i  Ibs 

82.5 

50  5 

15    Ibs 

Height  

1  71 

1  72 

4  in 

1  86 

1  53 

1J  in 

918 

921 

4    " 

1  00 

820 

1     " 

Sternum  

1.39 

1.40 

t    " 

1.54 

1.24 

1      " 

Girth: 
Head  

568 

578 

4    " 

615 

541 

1     " 

Neck  

347 

356 

4   " 

400 

320 

14    " 

Chest,  full  

924 

932 

4   " 

1.01 

840 

24    " 

Chest,  repose  

877 

879 

i   " 

1.02 

795 

24    " 

Belly  

710 

739 

i    " 

865 

670 

3      " 

Hips  

891 

907 

1    " 

1.04 

816 

4     " 

Thighs  

508 

526 

1     " 

650 

475 

34    " 

Knees  

353 

363 

i  " 

415 

322 

1|    " 

Calves  

342 

351 

3   " 

406 

312 

14    " 

Insteps  

240 

239 

a1*   " 

270 

212 

a    .. 

Contracted  arm  

290 

296 

i    " 

370 

257 

If    " 

Arm  at  rest  

253 

256 

i   " 

346 

220 

1      " 

Kl  bows  

246 

259 

4   " 

292 

223 

U  " 

Fore-arms  

258 

266 

i  " 

305 

235 

1     " 

Wrists  

161 

165 

J   " 

185 

152 

4  " 

Breadth: 
Head  

154 

154 

o     " 

170 

143 

i    " 

Neck  

102 

109 

i   " 

122 

98 

4  " 

Shoulders  

426 

437 

4   " 

488 

411 

8     " 

Waist  

252 

257 

i    " 

293 

230 

i  " 

Hips  

321 

327 

4   " 

379 

294 

i    " 

Shoulder  elbows  

367 

375 

J   " 

419 

337 

i    " 

Elbow  tips  

456 

459 

i   " 

521 

410 

ij  " 

Length  of  feet  

256 

260 

4   " 

289 

236 

i  " 

Stretch  of  arms  

1.77 

1.79 

i  " 

1.99 

1.59 

2$  " 

Horizontal  length  

1.72 

1.74 

1  " 

1.87 

1.56 

1J  " 

Strength  

474 

501 

27 

869 

316 

176 

This  is  not  presented  as  showing  remarkably  large  results.  These  figures  are  not 
compared  with  the  picked  men,  such  as  soldiers,  sailors,  sporting  men,  or  the  volun- 
teer or  paid  gymnasts  who  are  paraded  to  announce  a  system,  a  method,  or  a  theoretical 
basis,  but  are  the  exact  measurements  of  a  whole  class  in  Arnherst  College,  taken 
with  an  interval  of  two  years,  with  the  sole  object  to  show  the  growth  and  develop- 
ment in  an  "average  lot"  of  young  men  between  twenty  years  and  six  months  and 
two  years  older,  engaged  in  college  study,  discipline,  and  training. 

In  this  table  the  first  column  of  figures  indicates  the  average  measures  of  the  class 
as  taken  in  February,  1882,  and  the  second  column  the  same  in  February,  1884,  both 
from  79  men.  The  data  are  all  expressed  in  millimeters,  except  "weight,"  which  is 
in  kilograms,  and  "strength,"  which  is  an  arbitrary  datum  constructed  by  multiply- 
ing the  weight  of  the  body  into  the  indications  of  strength  known  as  "  chest  tests," 
and  added  to  the  tests  of  the  "  back,  legs,  fore-arms,  and  lungs." 

The  third  column  gives  the  difference  or  increase  between  the  two  series,  expressed 
iii  fractions  of  an  inch. 

583 


CIRCULARS    OF    INFORMATION   FOR    1885. 


The  fourth  column  gives  the  largest  individual  measurements  found  in  Februai 
1884,  and  the  fifth  column  the  smallest  of  the  same  date. 

The  sixth  column  gives  the  largest  individual  increase  gained  in  the  two  years. 

The  item  of  "height"  is  of  interest,  in  that  we  see  a  slow  and  apparently  small 
growth  in  two  years.  We,  however,  can  very  easily  compare  the  results  of  the  col- 
lege students  with  those  obtained  by  Dr.  J.  H.  Baxter,  Medical  Purveyor,  U.  S.  A., 
during  the  late  civil  war.  His  measurements  were  from  190,621  drafted  and  enlisted 
men,  and  those  at  Amherst  from  1,806  students  at  college  between  1861  and  1878. 


Years  of  age. 

17. 

18. 

19. 

20. 

21. 

22. 

23. 

24. 

25. 

Dr.  Baxter  

Inches. 
65.65 
66.71 

Inches. 
66.39 
67.38 

Inches. 
67.07 
67.72 

Inthes. 
67.51 
67.88 

Inches. 
67.58 
67.86 

Inches. 
67.92 
68.11 

Inches. 
68.01 
68.17 

Inches. 
68.02 
68.35 

Inches. 
68.05 
68.34 

Amhorst  College     .... 

In  both  these  tables  we  see  a  rapid  increase  from  17  to  20,  and  a  slower  and  more 
uniform  rate  afterward. 

The  chest  measure  is  large  for  the  Senior  age,  it  being  36.75  inches  for  the  class  of 
1884,  while  the  Senior  average  for  20  years  has  been  but  35.97  inches. 

The  abdominal  girth  expresses  a  healthy  growth  either  in  the  fat  or  well  developed 
nutritive  organs. 

The  increase  of  joints  and  muscles  in  both  extremities  is  significant  and  symmetri- 
cal, and  while  the  average  arm  girth  increase  (biceps)  is  .25  inch,  and  the  largest  indi- 
vidual increase  is  1.75  inches,  the  development  is  shown  in  the  test  of  strength,  which 
has  increased  from  474  to  501,  showing  the  greater  hardening  and  compactness  of  the 
muscular  fiber,  a  much  more  valuable  acquisition  than  the  greater  girth. 

Probably  the  brain  acquires  its  full  size  early  in  life.  This  is  corroborated  by  these 
results.  The  increase  of  head  girth  is  three-eighths  of  an  inch,  and  that  of  the  breadth 
nothing. 

These  results  go  to  show  that  the  "stretch  of  arms"  is  more  than  the  "perpendic- 
ular height,"  as  is  latterly  admitted  to  be  the  true  proportion  of  the  body.  The 
difference  is  more  than  two  inches.  That  the  finger-reach  has  increased  three-quarters 
of  an  inch  and  the  height  one-half  an  inch,  may  show  that  the  one  maximum  is 
gained  before  the  other. 

This  study  of  these  seventy  -nine  men  is  one  of  their  unconscious  additions  to  an- 
thropology, and  is  their  contribution  to  a  knowledge  of  what  constitutes  the  most 
complete  manhood. 

INSTITUTIONS    THAT    HAVE    ADOPTED    MORE    OK    LESS    COMPLETELY 
THE  SARGENT   SYSTEM. 

The  gymnasia  at  the  following  named  institutions  have  been  wholly 
or  partially  furnished  with  Dr.  Sargent's  apparatus  since  1879.  Those 
in  which  his  system  of  measurements  and  directions  are  employed  are 
indicated  by  an  asterisk  (*). 

[M.  against  the  name  of  an  institution  indicates  that  it  is  for  males;  F.,  for  females;  M.  and  P..  for 
males  and  females.  A  I  indicates  that  the  gymnasium  is  in  charge  of  a  regularly  educated  physician.  ] 

1.  *tAmherst  College,  Arnherst,  Mass.     M. 

2.  *  Boston  University,  Boston,  Mass.     M.  and  F. 

3.  *t  Cornell  University,  Ithaca,  N.  Y.     M.  and  F. 

4.  *t  Harvard  University,  Cambridge,  Mass.    M. 
6.  *tHaverford  College,  Haverford,  Pa.    M. 

584 


PHYSICAL    TRAINING    IN   AMERICAN    COLLEGES.  57 

6.  *t  Johns  Hopkins  University,  Baltimore,  Md.     M. 

7.  *  Lehigh  University,  South  Bethlehem,  Pa.     M. 

8.  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology,  Boston,  Mass.     M. 

9.  *  Nashville  University,  State  Normal  College,  Nashville,  Term.    M.  and  P. 

10.  'National  Deaf -Mute  College,  Washington,  D.  C.    M. 

11.  *  Smith  College,  Northampton,  Mass.     F. 

12.  *t  Swarthmore  College,  Swarthmore,  Pa.     M.  and  F. 

13.  Tufts  College,  College  Hill,  Mass.    M. 

14.  Wellesley  College,  Wellesley,  Mass.     F.   .  .  _  . 

15.  English  High  and  Public  Latin  School,  Boston,  Mass.    M. 

16.  Marlboro  Street  School,  Boston,  Mass. '  F. 

17.  Mount  Vernon  Street  School,  Boston,  Mass.    F. 

18.  Berkeley  School,  New  York  City. 

19.  Fifth  Avenue  School,  New  York  City. 

20.  Dr.  Brearley's  School,  New  York  City.     F. 

21.  *t  William  Penn  Charter  School,  Philadelphia.    M. 

22.  Gunnery  School,  Washington,  Conn.    M. 

23.  St.  Mark's  School,  Southborough,  Mass.    M. 

24.  High  School,  Providence,  R.  I.     M.  and  P. 

25.  Siglar's  Preparatory  School,  Newburg,  N.  Y.    M. 

26.  Cook  Academy,  Havana,  N.  Y.     M. 

27.  Willard's  Academy,  Saxton's  River,  Vt. 

28.  McLean  Insane  Asylum,  Somerville,  Mass.     M.  and  P. 

29.  Cadets'  Armory,  Boston,  Mass.    M. 

30.  *t  Hartford  Theological  Seminary,  Hartford,  Conn.    M. 

31.  Theological  Seminary,  Princeton,  N.  J.    M. 

32.  Newton  Theological  Institution,  Newton,  Mass.    M. 

33.  *t  Young  Men's  Christian  Union,  Boston,  Mass.     M. 

34.  Young  Men's  Christian  Association,  Baltimore,  Md .     M. 

35.  Young  Men's  Christian  Association,  Providence,  R.  I.     M. 

36.  Young  Men's  Christian  Association,  Chicago,  111.     M. 

37.  Young  Men's  Christian  Association,  Washington,  D.  C.     M. 

38.  Young  Men's  Christian  Association,  Lawrence,  Mass.     M. 

39.  Young  Men's  Christian  Association,  Bangor,  Me.     M. 

40.  *t  Sanatory  Gymnasium,  Philadelphia,  Pa.    M.  and  F. 

41.  Sanatory  Gymnasium,  Providence,  R.  I. 

42.  *f  Sa.na.tnry  Gymnasium,  Cambridge,  Mass.    F. 

43.  New  York  Athletic  Club,  New  York  City.    K. 

44.  Olympic  Athletic  Club,  San  Francisco,  Cal.     M. 

45.  Montreal  Athletic  Club,  Montreal,  Canada.     M. 

46.  Saint  Louis  Athletic  Club,  Saint  Louis,  Mo.     M. 

47.  Rochester  Athletic  Club,  Rochester,  N.  Y.    M. 

48.  Norfolk  Athletic  Club,  Norfolk,  Va.    M. 

It  is  proposed  to  introduce  the  Sargent  system  of  directed  exercise 
^iiito  Vassar  College,  for  women,  at  Poughkeepsie,  N.  Y.,  and  the  Uni- 
versity of  Vermont  at  Burlington,  Vt.  It  has  just  been  adopted  for 
the  new  gymnasium  of  Lafayette  College  at  Easton,  Pa.  The  largest 
and  best  of  the  gymnasia  belonging  to  a  woman's  college  is  that_at 
Bryn  Mawr  College,  Bryn  Mawr,  Pa.  It  will  be  opened  probably  in 
September,  1885,  under  the  ebiffge  pf  a  directress  trained  for  the  posi- 
tion by  Dr.  Sargent. 

585 


58  CIRCULARS   OP   INFORMATION   FOE   1885. 

CONCERNING  TEACHERS  OF  THE  SARGENT  SYSTEM. 

So  great  is  the  demand  for  competent  teachers  of  physical  training 
that  Dr.  Sargent  opened  a  school  for  teachers  in  the  autumn  of  1884, 
with  an  attendance  of  sixteen  pupils. 

The  following  circular  sets  forth  the  nature,  aims,  and  methods  of 
the  Physical  Training  School  for  Teachers,  corner  of  Church  and  Palmer 
streets,  Cambridge,  Mass.: 

Within  the  past  few  years  the  demand  for  competent  teachers  in  physical  training 
has  been  so  great  that  salaries  ranging  from  one  to  three  thousand  dollars  a  year 
have  been  offered  to  those  that  are  capable  of  filling  the  desired  positions. 

Most  of  the  applicants  for  these  places  have  been  poorly  qualified,  both  mentally 
and  physically,  for  the  work  that  was  expected  of  them,  and  they  have  failed  to  meet 
the  requirements  of  the  position  for  want  of  a  proper  preparatory  training. 

The  numerous  requests  that  I  have  received  for  teachers  trained  in  accordance 
with  the  Harvard  system  have  induced  me  to  open  a  school  for  this  purpose. 

The  object  of  this  school  will  be  to  drill  pupils  in  the  theory  and  practice  of  physi- 
cal training,  and  to  prepare  them  to  teach  in  this  much  neglected  branch  of  education. 

Course. —  The  course  will  extend  over  two  years.  Medical  graduates  and  those  that 
are  prepared  to  pass  a  satisfactory  examination  in  the  preliminary  work  will  be  re- 
quired to  attend  only  one  year. 

Applicants. —  All  applicants  must  have  good  health,  a  sound  physique,  and  have 
had  the  advantages  of  at  least  a  common  school  education. 

Course  for  first  year. —  Believing  that  all  teaching  should  be  preceded  by  inquiries 
into  the  "  nature,  capabilities,  and  requirements  of  the  being  to  be  taught,"  the  fun- 
damental principles  of  anatomy  and  physiology  will  form  the  basis  of  the  first  year's 
work. 

The  studies  in  these  branches  will  be  supplemented  by  such  studies  in  biology, 
zoology,  chemistry,  and  physics,  as  are  necessary  to  understand  the  laws  of  health, 
growth,  and  development. 

Practice  for  the  first  year. —  The  practice  for  the  first  year  will  consist  of  special  ex. 
ercises  for  the  development  of  the  teacher : — Massage,  free  movements,  calisthenics, 
light  gymnastics— the  last  including  wooden  and  iron  dumb-bells,  wands,  and  Indian 
clubs ;  chest  weights,  class  exercises,  voice  training,  and  introductory  exercises  on 
the  heavy  apparatus ;  practical  carpentry,  the  art  of  splicing,  serving,  and  knotting 
ropes,  and  the  mechanical  working  of  the  gymnasium ;  what  to  do  in  case  of  emer- 
gencies. 

Course  for  second  year. —  The  studies  for  the  second  year  will  consist  of  inquiries 
into  the  relation  of  body  and  mind : — The  conservation  of  energy,  animal  mechanics, 
mental  hygiene  from  the  physical  basis,  anthropometry  and  the  laws  of  form  and 
proportion,  vital  statistics,  semeiology,  physical  diagnosis ;  the  hygiene  of  occupa- 
tions and  of  schools ;  natural  heritage ;  variations  in  exercise,  food,  sleep,  bathing, 
clothing,  and  climate,  considered  as  to  their  mental  and  physical  effects  upon  different 
constitutions ;  the  analysis  of  sports,  games,  and  educational  exercises ;  the  relation 
of  the  organism  to  the  structure,  the  structure  to  the  individual,  and  the  individual 
to  the  public ;  the  science  and  art  of  teaching. 

Practice  for  second  year. —  The  practice  for  the  second  year  will  consist  of  class  exer- 
cises with  bar  bells,  chest  weights,  and  Indian  clubs,  marches,  the  organization  of 
classes  and  the  division  into  squads,  school  work,  athletic  sports,  heavy  gymnastics, 
practice  with  the  dynamometers;  the  application  of  developing  appliances  for  the  re- 
lief of  natural  weaknesses;  the  adaptation  of  exercise  and  training  to  individual  needs ; 
practice  in  teaching.  > 

586 


PHYSICAL   TRAINING   IN   AMERICAN   COLLEGES.  59 

Reading  course. —  Special  arrangements  will  be  made  with  those  who  desire  to  take 
the  reading  course  at  home,  though  attendance  at  the  gymnasium  is  advised. 

Summer  course. —  For  the  benefit  of  all  that  are  eugaged  in  teaching  throughout 
the  year,  a  course  of  reading  and  practice  will  be  prescribed,  and  a  summer  course  of 
lectures,  examinations,  and  exercises  will  be  given. 

Equivalents.  —  A  good  physique,  fine  muscular  development,  proficiency  in  physical 
exercises,  and  experience  in  teaching,  will  be  accepted  as  equivalents  for  a  certain 
amount  of  time. 

Certificates. —  In  every  case  the  applicant  must  pass  a  satisfactory  examination  in 
all  of  the  work  prescribed,  and  have  taken  a  medical  degree  from  a  medical  school  in 
good  standing,  in  order  to  receive  a  full  certificate. 

In  other  cases  certificates  will  be  given  indicating  the  time  spent  at  the  school,  the 
work  done,  and  the  nature  of  the  service  that  each  teacher  is  capable  of  performing. 

Sessions. —  The  course  will  be  open  to  men  and  women,  but  the  physical  exercises 
will  be  conducted  in  different  gymnasia.  The  gymnasium  for  women  will  be  in  Cam- 
bridge, the  gymnasium  for  men  in  Boston. 

The  winter  session  will  begin  November  1,  and  continue  until  June  1.  The  summer 
session  will  begin  the  first  Monday  after  July  4,  and  continue  five  weeks. 

Terms. — For  season  ending  June  1,  1885  :  One-half  course  in  theory  and  practice, 
$100 ;  one- half  course  in  reading,  prescribed,  $50 ;  one-half  course  in  summer  practice, 
ending  second  week  in  August,  $50. 

In  no  case  will  a  summer  course  be  given  unless  preceded  by  a  reading  course  ex- 
tending over  six  months.  All  payments  made  in  advance.  For  further  particulars 
address — 

D.  A.  SARGENT,  M.D., 

Cambridge,  Mass. 


THE    NUMBER  AND   COST  OF   COLLEGE    GYMNASIUM 
BUILDINGS  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

In  passing  to  consider  the  number  and  cost  of  the  college  gymnasia 
erected  and  fitted  since  those  of  Amherst,  Harvard,  and  Yale  were  built 
in  1860,  we  may  note  that  to  Princeton  College,  probably,  belongs  the 
honor  of  having  the  first  college  building  devoted  exclusively  to  gym- 
nastic purposes.  This  embryo  structure,  if  we  may  be  allowed  the  term, 
as  befits  an  embryo,  was  a  very  small  affair,  and  owed  its  existence  to 
the  zealous  endeavors  of  a  few  students  of  the  college  in  1856.  It  was 
a  small  "single-boarded  structure  of  wood,"  and  was  painted  red, 
"  that,"  as  its  historian  tells  us,  "it  might  resist  the  storms  of  heaven  as 
its  founders  had  resisted  the  objections  of  an  unpropitious  Faculty."  It 
remained  "a  stoveless  shanty"  till  1860,  when  a  stove  and  a  new  set  of 
apparatus  were  put  into  it.  In  1"865,  during  the  summer  vacation,  the 
people  of  the  town  reduced  it  to  ashes,  on  account  of  a  report  that  a 
tramp  sick  with  yellow  fever  had  slept  in  it  over  night. 

The  era  of  gymnasium  building  which  opened  in  1860  may  be  con- 
veniently divided  into  three  periods,  viz. :  first  period,  1859-'60  to  1870, 
inclusive;  second  period,  1871  to  1880,  inclusive;  third  period,  1881  to 
the  present  writing,  February,  1885. 

687 


GO 


CIRCULARS    OF    INFORMATION    FOR    1885. 

FIRST  PKRIOD. 


Institution  with  which  gymnasium  is  connected. 

When  built. 

Cost. 

(a)  Institutions  for  superior  instruction. 
Amherst  College,  Massachusetts  

1859-'60 

$15,  000 

Dartmouth  College,  New  Hampshire      .         

1866 

24  000 

Harvard  University,  Massachusetts  

1860 

10,  000 

College  of  New  Jersey  (Princeton  College),  N.  J  

1869 

38,  000 

Washington  University,  Missouri  

T 

7,000 

Wesleyau  University,  Connecticut          

1863 

5,000 

Universitv  of  Wisconsin,  Wisconsin.  

1868 

5,000 

Yale  College,  Connecticut  

1860 

13,000 

Pennsylvania  College,  Pennsylvania  

1870 

3,000 

,    ion  nnn 

(6)  Institutions  for  secondary  instruction. 

Claverack  College  and  Hudson  River  Institute,  New 
York  

1861 

6,000 

West  Newton  English  and  Classical  School,  Massa- 
chusetts   

1860 

500 

Williston  Seminary,  Massachusetts  ......  ..  

? 

1  20,  000 

°fi  ^flf) 

• 

Total  for  the  first  period  ..... 

146,  500 

Williams  College,  Massachusetts,  and  Bowdoin  College,  Maine,  for 
f  young  men,  and  Vassar  College,  for  women,  in  New  York,  each  fitted 
f  up  a  gymnasiumTduring  this  period,  in  a  building  since  devoted  to  other 
I  purposes. 

SECOND  PERIOD. 


\ 


Institution  with  which  gymnasium  is  connected. 

When  built. 

Cost. 

Institutions  for  superior  instruction. 
Beloit  College  \Visconsin         ..  ...............  ...... 

1874 

$5,000 

University  of  California,  California  

1878 

12,000 

Harvard  University   Massachusetts  .......    •.... 

1879 

110,000 

Smith  College  Massachusetts      ............   .   .. 

1880 

4  000 

Vanderbilt  University,  Tennessee  

1879 

22,  000 

Newton  Theological  Institution,  Massachusetts  
Hartford  Theological  Seminary,  Connecticut  

1876 
T 

4,000 
^.OOO 

Total  for  the  second  period  .  ....  ..  

165,000 

]  Estimated. 


588 


PHYSICAL    TRAINING   IN    AMERICAN    COLLEGES. 

THIRD  PERIOD. 


61 


Institutions  with  which  gymnasium  is  connected. 

When  built. 

Cost. 

(a)  Institutions  for  superior  instruction. 
Amherst  College,  Massachusetts  ........  .  ... 

1883-'84 

$65,000 

Bryn  Mawr  College,  Pennsylvania  

£1884 

18,00<r> 

Cornell  University,  New  York  

1882->83 

40,000 

Dickinson  College  Pennsylvania          ..   ...... 

Ib84 

.    8,000 

Johns  Hopkins  University,  Maryland  .....  .... 

1883 

10,000 

Lafayette  College,  Pennsylvania  ........   ........... 

1884 

15,  000 

Lehi^h  University  Pennsylvania.         ....... 

1882 

40,000 

Massachusetts  Agricultural  College,  Massachusetts1  .. 
University  of  Minnesota,  Minnesota  1  .  .  

1883 

1884 

6,000 
34,000 

Nashville  University,  State  Normal  College,  Tennes- 
see. 
National  Deaf-Mute  College,  District  of  Columbia8... 
Tufts  College,  Massachusetts  .-  ............. 

1884 

1881 
1882-'83 

5,500 

14,600 
10,000 

University  of  Wooster,  Ohio  .  ..........  .   ..... 

1882-'83 

4,200 

(6)  Institutions  for  secondary  instruction. 
Shattuck  School  Minnesota          ..............       ... 

1880 

20  000 

Total  for  third  period......  ................... 

290  300 

Total  for  second  period             .       ....  ........ 

165  000 

146,  500 

601,  800 

CONCERNING    SCHOOL  AND  COLLEGE   GYMNASIA   NOT  OCCUPYING  AN 

ENTIBE  BUILDING. 

It  is  impossible,  owing  to  meager  returns  to  our  inquiries,  to  state  ac- 
curately the  amount  of  money  exp'ended  for  buildings  and  apparatus 
by  institutions  not  noted  in  the  above  lists ;  but  we  may  safely  "guess" 
that  $150,000  have  been  expended  since  1860  on  the  class  of  gym- 
nasia under  consideration,  in  addition  to  the  $600,000  accounted  for 
above. 

Funds  are  either  in  hand  or  are  being  raised  for  gymnasia  at  Phil- 
lips Exeter  Academy,  New  Hampshire ;  University  of  Michigan,  Mich- 
igan; University  of  Pennsylvania,  Pennsylvania;  and  Williams  College, 
Massachusetts.  New  gymnasia  are  projected  at  the  United  States  Mili- 
tary and  Naval  Academies. 

1  Used  at  present  for  military  drill. 

*  This  is  unique  among  our  college  gymnasia,  as  it  contains,  on  the  ground  floor,  a 
swimming  pool,  which  is  40  by  26  feet,  6  feet  deep  at  one  end,  sloping  upward  to  a 
depth  of  3  feet  at  the  other. 

589 


62 


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CIRCULARS    OF    INFORMATION    FOR    1885. 


DESCRIPTIONS  OF  THE  PRINCIPAL  GYMNASIA. 

THE    PRATT    GYMNASIUM  AT   AMHERST  COLLEGE. 

The  new  gymnasium  at  Amherst  College,  which  was  completed  during 
the  summer  of  1884,  is  styled  the  Pratt  Gymnasium,  in  honor  of  C.  M. 
Pratt,  of  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  a  graduate  of  the  college  in  1879,  who  con- 
tributed nearly  $40,000  for  its  erection.  The  building,  which  faces 
westerly,  is  situated  within  the  college  precincts,  on,  or  rather  in,  a  side- 
hill  sloping  toward  the  south.  The  structure,  which  is  120  feet  by  80 
in  the  clear,  is  of  brick,  has  a  slated  roof,  and  comprises  two  stories  and 
a  basement.  E.  L.  Roberts,  46  Broadway,  New  York  City,  was  its  archi- 
tect. Through  the  kindness  of  Dr.  E.  Hitchcock,  its  director,  we  are 


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Pratt  Gymnasium — Basement  Plan. 

enabled  to  give  the  floor  plans  of  the  Pratt  Gymnasium  and  a  view  of 
the  building,  and  to  furnish  an  itemized  statement  of  its  cost.  The 
rooms  on  the  first  floor,  besides  the  front  and  side  entrance  halls,  are 
C  in  number:  main  hall  and  annex,  80  feet  by  64;  dressing  room,  38 
feet  by  40,  with  270  heated  and  ventilated  lockers ;  a  tepidarium,  or  dry- 
rub  room,  15  feet  by  12;  a  shower  room,  14  feet  by  12,  opening  from 
the  tepidarinm,  and  containing  6  shower  baths ;  the  professor's  room, 
20  feet  by  18,  fitted  as  a  study  and  office;  and  a  statistics  room,  18  feet 
by  12,  for  the  physical  examination  of  students. 

On  the  second  floor  are  :  the  billiard  room,  48  feet  by  24,  containing 
3  billiard  tables  ;  a  small  professor's  room,  14  feet  by  9;  the  resort,  or 
club-room,  25  feet  by  14,  for  the  headquarters  of  the  Student  (the  col- 

596 


t> 

H 


PHYSICAL    TEAINING    IN    AMERICAN    COLLEGES. 


69 


legs  journal:)  and  reading  room ;  2  rooms,  respectively  16  feet  by  10, 
and  32  feet  \)y  16,  for  the  custodians  of  the  building  to  live  in ;  a  fur- 
niture room,  20  feet  by  10 ;  a  spacious  visitors'  gallery  ;  and  a  running 


Pratt  Gymnasium — Firs'  Story  Plan. 

track,  207  feet  long,  extending  around  the  main  hall  at  an  elevation  of 
11  feet  from  its  floor. 


Pratt  Gymnasium — Second  Story  Plan. 

In  the  basement,  which  is  high-studded  and  lighted  by  windows  on 
all  sides,  there  are  7  rooms,  viz. :  the  bowling  room,  76  feet  by  21,  with 

597 


70  CIECULARS    OF    INFORMATION   FOR    1885. 

3  alleys  70  feet  in  length ;  a  sparring  room,  23  feet  by  13 ;  a  "  cage,"  or 
room  for  base-ball  and  tennis  practice,  76  feet  by  21 ;  a  bath-room,  58 
feet  by  12,  containing  6  tub  and  6  sponge  baths ;  a  room,  16  feet  by 
13,  containing  2  water-closets  and  3  urinals ;  a  store-room,  38  feet  by  9 ; 
a  fuel  cellar,  28  feet  by  24 ;  and  a  boiler  room,  24  feet  by  24. 

In  the  Barrett  Gymnasium  all  provision  for  lighting  after  dark  was 
deliberately  omitted;  but  the  Pratt  Gymnasium  has  been  abundantly 
supplied  with  gas  fixtures.  The  main  hall  of  the  new  gymnasium, 
which  is  ceiled  with  yellow  pine,  is  40  feet  high  in  the  central  part, 
and  is  lighted  by  means  of  a  large  skylight  in  the  roof,  besides  numer- 
ous side  and  end  windows.  The  fixed  apparatus  and  Sargent  develop- 
ing appliances,  with  which  this  gymnasium  is  liberally  furnished,  are 
placed  in  the  main  hall  under  the  visitors'  gallery  and  that  formed  by 
the  running  track.  The  open  floor  space  of  the  main  hall  is  amply 
sufficient,  when  cleared  of  the  portable  gymnastic  machines,  for  one 
hundred  men  to  engage  in  class  exercise,  which,  as  has  been  remarked 
already,  is  a  peculiar  feature  of  the  Amherst  regime.  The  gymnasium 
is  open  in  term  time  from  8.15  A.M.  to  10  P.M. 

Those  who  wish  to  inform  themselves  fully  as  to  the  details  of  the 
Amherst  system  will  do  well  to  consult  "  A  Manual  of  the  Gymnastic 
Exercises  as  practiced  by  the  Junior  Class  in  Amherst  College.  Pre- 
pared under  the  Direction  of  Dr.  Edward  Hitchcock,  Professor  of  Phys- 
ical Education  and  Hygiene.  Boston  :  Ginu,  Heath  &  Co.  1884." 

The  following  itemized  statement  concerning  the  cost  of  building  and 
furnishing  the  Pratt  Gymnasium  is  of  interest : 

The  building  as  per  contract $49,825  00 

Excavation 1,500  00 

Retaining  wall,  and  railings 1,300  00 

Heating  apparatus , 3,700  00 

Plumbing 2,790  00 

Gymnastic  apparatus..... 1,824  61 

Bowling  alleys 1,200  00 

Billiard  tables  and  fixtures 630  00 

Piano 460  00 

Gas  fixtures 560  68 

Gas  piping 424  00 

Anthropometric  apparatus 100  00 

Other  furniture 149  00 

Tiling 850  00 

Safe,  for  papers  and  books 100  00 

Total 65,413  29 

THE  CORNELL  UNIVERSITY  GYMNASIUM. 

The  following  account  of  the  gymnasium  at  Cornell  University  and  of 
its  method  of  working,  was  kindly  furnished  by  Lieut.  Walter  S.  Schuy- 
ler,  U.  S.  A.,  Professor  of  Military  Science  and  Tactics  at  the  university, 
in  the  absence  of  the  professor  of  physical  culture. 

598 


PHYSICAL    TRAINING   IN    AMERICAN    COLLEGES.  71 

Buildings. — The  main  building,  completed  in  1882-'83,  is  of  brick, 
with  heavily  buttressed  walls,  the  self-supporting  roof  tiled  without 
and  ceiled  within.  To  this  structure  was  annexed  the  frame  building 
formerly  used  as  a  gymnasium,  refitted  and  practically  rebuilt.  In  this 
addition  are  6  shower  baths,  a  toilet  room,  closets,  an  office  for  the  di- 
rector, a  withdrawing  room  for  use  in  physical  examinations,  a  small 
store  room,  and,  on  the  second  floor,  a  set  of  250  lockers  for  use  of 
students.  The  whole  was  designed  to  serve  the  double  purpose  of  gym- 
nasium and  armory. 

The  main  building  comprises  the  armory  and  gymnasium  hall,  with 
the  floor,  60  by  150  feet,  laid  solidly  in  cement;  an  office  for  the  military 
professor ;  a  military  store  room ;  and  over  these  rooms  and  the  lobby, 
a  gallery  for  spectators.  Qn  occasion,  the  gallery  accommodates  an 
orchestra,  and  the  office  is  arranged  for  use  as  a  ladies'  dressing  room. 

As  the  main  hall  must  be  used  alternately  as  a  gymnasium  and  a 
drill  room,  nearly  all  of  the  apparatus  is  made  detachable  and  portable, 
and  on  drill  days  is,  so  far  as  necessary,  removed  into  the  annex,  or 
hauled  up  to  the  iron  suspension  frame  by  the  janitor.  The  removal 
occupies  but  a  few  minutes,  and  after  drill  the  muskets  are  locked  in 
arm  racks  and  the  apparatus  replaced  in  short  order,  so  that  class  work 
with  dumb-bells  and  clubs,  as  well  as  general  exercise,  begins  in  half 
an  hour  after  the  recall  from  drill. 

The  present  locker  and  bath  accommodations  having  been  found  in- 
adequate for  the  rapidly  increasing  student  body,  an  additional  build- 
ing has  been  planned  to  supply  this  deficiency,  and  also  to  give  room 
for  special  exercises.  This  annex  will  be  of  two  stories  with  a  base- 
ment. The  latter  will  contain  four  bowling  alleys.  On  the  ground  floor 
will  be  six  bath  rooms  of  various  kinds,  a  rubbing  room,  and  a  dressing 
room ;  also  a  hall,  30  by  52  feet,  for  an  upper  classmen's  general  exercis- 
ing room,  fitted  with  about  100  lockers,  and  a  small  store  room.  The 
attic  floor  will  comprise  a  base-ball  cage,  19  by  75  feet,  in  which  certain 
rowing  machines  will  be  placed,  and  small  store  closets  between  the 
several  windows  protecting  the  same. 

Equipment. — The  gymnasium  is  equipped  with  apparatus  of  the  most 
approved  make  and  adjustment.  The  heavier  pieces  are  mainly  from  the 
Boston  establishment;  some  have  been  manufactured  in  the  university 
shops,  and  there  are  a  few  "Giffbrd"  and  other  patent  appliances. 
The  machines  are  arranged  about  the  room  with  a  view  to  orderly  and 
systematic  work,  and  on  each  is  posted  a  card  of  direction  as  to  its  use. 

System. — The  affairs  of  the  associated  departments  of  military  science 
and  physical  culture  are  regulated  by  a  council  composed  of  the  pres- 
ident of  tbe  university,  one  other  member  of  the  board  of  trustees, 
the  professor  of  physiology,  etc.,  the  professor  of  military  science,  and 
the  professor  of  physical  culture. 

The  system  now  in  vogue  was  adopted  last  year  on  trial,  and  thus 
far  has  been  found  to  work  well.  As  soon  as  possible  after  the  opening 

599 


72 


CIRCULARS    OF    INFORMATION    FOR    1885. 


of  the  fall  term,  all  members  of  the  new  class  are  subjected  to  a  sys- 
tematic examination  by  the  professor  of  physical  culture,  the  measure- 
ments and  other  statistics  being  recorded  in  a  book  prepared  for  the 
purpose.  Military  drill  is  required  of  all  members  of  the  Freshman 


Armory  and  Gymnasium.. 
€0'.0"xl50',0n 


Scale  of  Feet. 

Plan  of  Cornell  University  Gymnasium. 

and  Sophomore  classes;  but  such  students  as  are  found,  upon  the  ex- 
amination referred  to,  to  imperatively  need  special  gymnastic  training, 
are  at  once  transferred  from  the  military  to  the  gymnastic  department, 
and  are  required  to  pursue  a  course  of  training  laid  down  for  them  by 
the  examiner,  this  course  comprising  five  exercises  per  week,  on  the 
apparatus  specially  adapted  to  their  individual  needs, 


PHYSICAL    TRAINING   IN   AMERICAN    COLLEGES.  73 

For  all  other  students  work  in  the  gymnasium  is  optional,  and  under 
the  advice  and  direction  of  the  professor  and  his  assistant.  Many  of 
the  men  whose  development  is  not  sufficiently  defective  to  warrant 
their  transfer  from  the  military  department,  are  advised  by  the  examiner 
as  to  their  deficiencies.  To  each  is  given  a  card  showing  a  comparison 
between  his  own  statistics  and  the  average  to  be  expected  in  a  subject 
of  corresponding  stature  and  weight. 

The  professor  of  physical  culture  is  also  the  medical  examiner  for 
all  those  wishing  to  get  excused  from  military  exercises  on  the  ground 
of  physical  disability.  The  applicants  for  such  exemptions  for  limited 
periods  are  not  more  numerous  than  tis  to  be  expected  in  a  battalion 
aggregating  two  hundred  men. 

Students  absenting  themselves  from '  their  assigned  gymnastic  or 
military  exercises  for  any  cause  other  than  illness,  must  conform  to 
the  regulations  governing  absence  from  other  university-  duties. 

This  system,  outlined  above,  will  probably  be,  in  time,  so  modified  as 
to  require  work  in  the  gymnasium  during  the  winter  term  of  the  entire 
Freshman  class.  During  that  term  there  is  no  drill. 

The  professor  of  physical  culture  is  aided  by  a  skilled  assistant  who 
conducts  the  class  exercises  and  supervises  all  practice  with  the  ap- 
paratus. He  also  gives  instruction  in  boxing  and  acts  as  coach  for  the 
outdoor  athletics. 

/The  exercises  of  the  women  students  are  conducted  in  the  gymnasium 
/  of  Sage  College,  by  the  professor  in  person,  with  the  assistance  of  the 
matron. 

During  the  past  year  there  were  about  twenty  students  transferred 
from  the  military  department  for  compulsory  exercise,  and  the  result 
of  their  practice,  as  shown  by  comparison  of  the  measurements  made 
at  the  beginning  and  end  of  the  year,  is  most  gratifying,  the  total  in- 
crease of  the  class  (thirteen  measured)  in  the  one  item  of  "lung  capac- 
ity" being  over  forty  cubic  inches. 

In  addition  to  this  class  upon  which  the  exercise  was  compulsory,  the 
students  to  a  large  number  have  availed  themselves  of  the  privileges 
of  the  gymnasium  with  greater  or  less  regularity,  and  in  every  case  to 
good  effect.  Perhaps  the  best  evidence  of  this  is  to  be  found  in  the 
records  of  Cornell  in  the  State  intercollegiate  contests  during  the 
spring  of  1885. 

It  is  found  by  examination  of  the  statistics  that  the  topography  of 
the  country  supplies,  in  a  sense,  the  place  of  a  gymnasium  for  the  stu 
dents  at  large,  the  average  increase  of  leg  and  lung  dimensions  during 
their  first  year  being  unprecedented  in  college  statistics. 

The  military  drill  gives  a  special  training  in  discipline  and  personal 
carriage  which  proves  beneficial,  and  the  effect  of  which  is  observed  by 
all  who  visit  our  campus. 

Plan  of  the  gymnasium. — It  may  be  readily  seen  that  we  have  a  main 
gymnasium  hall  equal  in  space  and  equipment  to  any  in  the  country, 

601 


74 


CIRCULARS    OF    INFORMATION    FOR    1885. 


except,  perhaps,  that  of  Harvard;  and  after  the  completion  of  the  ad- 
ditional buildings  as  planned,  our  facilities  will  be  second  to  none. 

It  appears  from  the  printed  forms  accompanying  Lieutenant  Schuy- 
ler's  account,  that  the  system  of  measurements  and  of  obtaining  the 
"history"  of  an  individual  is  the  same  as  fhat  used  at  Harvard  and  at 
Amherst,  and  that  cards  are  furnished  each  student  exercising  in  the 
gymnasium,  containing  specific  printed  directions  in  regard  to  the  appa- 
ratus he  must  use  and  the  time  he  must  use  it. 

THE   LEHIGH   UNIVERSITY    GYMNASIUM. 

The  Lehigh  University  Gymnasium,  at  South  Bethlehem,  Pa.,  is 
situated  on  the  university  campus  and  faces  west,  The  building  was 
planned  by  Addison  Hutton,  architect,  400  Chestnut  street,  Philadel- 
phia. Dr.  Sargent  of  Cambridge  rendered  valuable  service  in  perfect- 
ing the  j»l.i!is,  which  embody  features  suggested  by  his  experience  as 
director  of  the  Hemenway  Gymnasium.  The  building,  of  Potsdam 


Lehigh  University  Gj nuituium — First  Floor  I'lan. 


sandstone,  is  au  elegantly  finished  structure,  and  occupies  a  command- 
ing site,  being  on  the  highest  part  of  the  university  grounds.  It  was 
erected  in  1882  out  of  the  university  funds,  at  a  total  cost,  including  fit- 
tings and  furniture,  of  $40,000,  and  comprises  two  stories  of  stone  and 
a  third  of  wood.  The  basement  contains  the  engine,  gauged  to  a  press- 
ure of  30  pounds,  with  a  boiler  having  a  capacity  of  100  gallons.  The 
average  pressure  required  is  8  pounds,  and  on  the  coldest  days  not  over 
15  pounds.  f  Thus,  with  the  numerous  radiators  throughout  the  build- 
ing, it  is  possible  to  maintain  easily  a  comfortable  temperature  in  the 
602 


PHYSICAL    TRAINING    IN    AMERICAN    COLLEGES. 


75 


coldest  weather.  As  represented  iii  the  front  view  of  the  exterior,  there 
are  two  entrances  on  the  ground  floor,  viz.,  the  main  entrance,  on  the 
left,  and  the  entrance  to  the  bowling  alleys,  on  the  right.  The  two 
bowling  alleys  are  contained  in  a  room  74  feet  by  13£.  Besides  the 
bowling  alleys  and  the  vestibule,  which  is  30  feet  by  20,  there  are  on 
the  first  floor  a  billiard  room,  30  feet  by  30,  containing  a  pool  table  and 
a  billiard  table ;  an  assembly  room,  44  feet  by  30,  for  students'  meetings, 
which,  although  furnished  with  settees,  can  also  be  used  for  fencing 
and  sparring;  and  a  bathing  and  dressing  room,  38  feet  by  13£,  contain- 
ing 4  long  tubs,  2  water  closets,  and  126  ventilated  closets,  or  lockers,  for 
clothing.  A  small  side  room,  containing  2  wash  bowls  and  3  urinals, 
opens  from  the  vestibule  on  the  left. 

On  the  second  floor,  which  is  reached  by  a  broad  main  stairway  in 
front  and  a  retired  stairway  in  the  tower  at  the  rear,  there  are  four 
rooms,  viz,:  the  director's  office,  16  feet  by  7,  fitted  with  electric  bells, 
and  so  arranged  with  glazed  casements  as  to  command  a  view  of  the 
whole  floor  as  well  as  the  stairway  from  the  vestibule;  the  examining 


Lehigh  University  Gymnasium — Second  Floor  Plan. 

room,  10  feet  by  7,  fitted  with  scales,  measuring  rods,  dynamometers, 
and  the  appliances  for  making  the  various  strength  tests  and  recording 
the  results  of  the  examinations;  a  bath  room,  44  feet  by  13J,  containing 
6  poapstone  sponge-bath  tubs,  3  urinals,  a  water  closet,  shower  room 
with  communicating  drying  closet,  and  120  lockers;  and  the  main  hall, 
or  exercise  room,  75  feet  by  45.  The  main  hall  is  40  feet  high  in  the 
center,  and  is  lighted  by  a  bay-window  containing  12  large  panes,  36 

603 


76 


CIRCULARS    OF    INFORMATION    FOR    1885. 


large  windows,  52  smaller  windows,  besides  8  large  skylights  of  ground 
glass  in  the  roof,  each  containing  4  panes,  2  feet  by  7. 

The  visitors'  gallery,  having  benches  for  spectators,  and  the  running 
track  of  38  laps  to  the  mile,  take  the  place  of  a  third  story. 

The  main  hall  is  fitted  with  23  pairs  of  chest  weights,  22  pieces  of  Dr. 
Sargent's  apparatus  for  individual  development,  and  the  usual  gymnastic 
apparatus,  such  as  parallel  and  horizontal  bars,  flying  and  traveling  rings, 
trapezes,  ladders,  spring-board,  Indian  clubs,  dumb  bells,  etc. 

The  ceiling  of  the  main  hall  and  of  the  dressing  room  is  of  oiled  yel- 
low pine. 

Thanks  are  due  to  President  T.  H.  Lamberton  and  Director  W.  H. 
Herrick  for  the  pains  taken  to  provide  the  views,  plans,  and  description 
herein  given  of  the  Lehigh  Gymnasium.  This  gymnasium  is,  taken  all 
in  all,  a  model  structure,  on  account  of  its  elegance,  convenience,  and 
commodiousness. 


GYMNASIUM  OF   BRYN  MAWR   COLLEGE. 


The  architectural  design,  both  as  to  the  exterior  and  interior,  is  the 
outgrowth  of  a  careful  study  of  the  requirements  of  a  gymnasium  for 


liutv 


Bryn  Mawr  College  Gymnasium — Basement  Plan. 

girls,  limited  in  its  execution  by  due  regard  to  economy.     The  walls  of 
the  basement  extend  5  feet  above  the  ground  line,  and  are  built  of  dark- 
604 


PHYSICAL  TRAINING  IN  AMERICAN  COLLEGES.  77 

gray  granite."  Above  the  basement  the  walls  are  made  of  red  bricks 
laid  in  red  mortar,  and  no  plaster  appears  on  their  inner  surfaces. 

The  main  floor  of  the  building  contains  the  principal  hall,  80  feet  long 
by  30  feet  wide,  22  feet  high  to  the  collar  beams,  and  open  to  the  roof 
above,  the  timbers  of  which  are  exposed  and  finished  to  show  the  nat- 
ural grain  and  color  of  the  wood.  Around  this  hall,  at  a  height  of  10 
feet  from  the  floor,  is  placed  a  gallery,  4  feet  wide  and  supported  upon 
iron  cantalevers  inserted  into  the  walls,  to  be  used  as  a  track  for  walk- 


Bryn  Mawr  College  Gymnasium— First  Story  Plan. 


ing  or  running.  The  floor  of  this  gallery  is  of  narrow  pine  boards,  and 
along  its  front  is  an  iron  balustrade  of  a  pleasing  design,  surmounted 
by  a  wooden  hand-rail.  Upon  the  north  side  of  the  main  hall  and  sep- 
arated from  it  by  curtains,  is  a  small  room,  14  by  20  feet  in  size,  in- 
tended for  special  apparatus. 

Upon  the  south  side  of  the  main  hall,  where  are  the  rooms  of  adminis- 
tration, there  is  a  reception  room,  12  feet  6  inches  wide  by  15  feet  long, 
entered  by  the  front  door.  Beyond  this  room  visitors  cannot  pass  with- 
out the  express  permission  of  the  directress.  Opening  from  this  is  the 
directress's  room,  16  feet  long  by  14  feet  wide,  which  is  separated  by 
glass  partitions  from  the  main  hall  and  from  the  passage  leading  to  it 
and  to  the  stairways.  Adjoining  this  is  the  examination  room,  designed 

605 


78 


CIRCULARS    OF    INFORMATION    FOR    1885. 


for  the  examination  and  record  of  the  physical  development  of  each 
student  using  the  gymnasium.  From  the  reception  room  extends  a 
passage  way,  which  is  usually' closed,  and  through  which  alone  visit- 
ors may  be  admitted  to  the  main  hall.  Another  doorway  from  the  re- 


Bryn  Mawr  College  Gymnasium — Second  Story  Plan. 

ception  room  admits  students  to  the  passage,  from  which  one  stairway 
ascends  to  the  walking  track,  and  another  descends  to  the  basement. 
Over  the  directress's  room  and  examinatioH  room  is  an  apartment  re- 
served for  the  use  of  the  directress. 

The  basement  contains  an  apartment  which  is  of  the  same  dimensions 
as  the  main  hall  above.  It  is  9  feet  high,  well  supplied  with  windows, 
which  are  colored  and  arranged  to  open  inward,  so  as  to  secure  abun- 
dant light  and  air,  with  complete  privacy.  It  is  further  ventilated  by 
8  large  flues,  in  which  a  current  is  kept  up  at  all  times  by  steam-heated 
coils  of  pipe.  One  half  of  this  apartment  is  reserved  for  a  bowling 
alley,  the  other  for  dressing  rooms.  Adjoining  this  apartment  and  be- 
neath the  administration  room,  is  a  space  allotted  to  bath  rooms  and 
dressing  rooms.  The  bath  rooms  are  4  feet  square;  they  are  lined  with 
lead  on  the  bottom,  and  on  the  sides  to  the  height  of  5  feet.  They  are 
supplied  with  hot  and  cold  water,  with  a  sprinkler,  and  are  designed 
for  sponge  baths  only.  They  are  entered  from  a  hot  room,  into  which 
the  bather  steps  after  the  bath.  The  floor  of  the  entire  basement  is  laid 
with  hollow  tiles  and  covered  with  asphaltum,  so  as  to  make  a  thor- 
oughly dry  surface. ____ 


PHYSICAL    TRAINING    IN    AMERICAN    COLLEGES. 


79 


In  tbe  arrangement  of  the  whole  building  great  attention  has  been 
given  to  the  admission  of  an  abundance  of  light  and  to  thorough  venti- 
lation. The  entrance  is  so  arranged  as  to  secure  the  greatest  privacy 
possible,  iii  order  that  the  students  may  take  exercise  without  the 
slightest  fear  of  intrusion. 

THE  LAFAYETTE   COLLEGE   GYMNASIUM,  EASTON,   PA. 

The  gymnasium  has  one  story  and  a  basement,  is  built  of  brick,  «writh 
a  slate  roof,  and  a  tower  at  each  corner. 
The  basement  contains  the  dressing  room,  provided  with  lockers, 


(JrmcnG.  ftart,     THrnvntlena .  ffO  X  45. 


Lafayette  College  Gymnaeinm. 

and  bath  rooms  provided  with  bowls  and  sponge,  shower,  individual,  and 
noddle  baths.  The  main  floor  has  a  gallery  across  each  end,  one  used  by 
visitors,  the  other  by  the  medical  director.  It  is  lighted  by  four  large 
windows  on  either  side,  and  above  by  four  dormer  windows  on  each 
side  in  the  roof;  a  rose  window  over  the  main  entrance;  and  two  dor- 

607 


80  CIRCULARS    OF    INFORMATION    FOR    1885. 

mer  windows  on  the  north  end.     There  are  also  windows  in  the  towers; 
these  open  into  the  main  tower  arid  increase  the  light. 

The  ventilation  is  carried  on  by  means  of  throe  flue  shafts,  with  open- 
ings at  the  floor.  The  heating  is  by  steam,  direct  radiation.  The  ceil- 
ing shows  the  roof  timbers  and  is  ceiled  with  wood  above. 

THE   JOHNS   HOPKINS   UNIVERSITY   GYMNASIUM. 

Thfs  gymnasium  is  conveniently  situated  near  to  the  university  build- 
ings, in  Baltimore.  The  main  building  is  a  parallelogram  in  plan,  run- 
ning north  and  south.  An  L  wing,  containing  dressing  rooms,  baths, 
director's  office,  and  examination  room,  extends  easterly  from  the  south 
end  of  the  main  building.  Exclusive  of  the  wing,  the  building  covers 
a  lot  40  feet  2  inches  by  103  feet  2  inches,  and  is  one  story  high.  The 
wing,  which  is  a  remodeled  structure  of  ancient  date,  is  of  two  and  a  half 
stories,  and  is  18  by  45  feet  in  area.  Upon  entering  the  hall  through 
the  vestibule  a  wide  staircase  on  the  right  leads  to  the  office  and  exam- 
ining room  of  the  director.  On  the  left,  and  near  the  front  of  the  hall,  is 
the  entrance  to  the  main  hall,  or  gymnasium  proper.  This  room  is  38 
by  89  feet,  and  is  covered  by  a  simple  open-timbered  roof,  constructed 
with  queen-post  principals.  The  trusses,  being  spaced  about  13£  feet 
apart,  form  7  bays  in  the  length  of  the  room.  The  ceiling  in  the  center 
is  45  feet  high,  and  at  the  sides  24  feet  high  "to  plate."  Each  side 
wall  is  pierced  by  7  large  semicircular-headed  windows,  the  sills  of 
which  are  6  feet  above  the  floor,  thus  giving  abundance  of  light.  There 
is  a  ventilator  in  the  roof  at  its  middle  point,  by  which,  together  with 
four  stoves  of  peculiar  pattern,  the  room  is  easily  and  well  ventilated. 
Artificial  light  is  supplied,  when  needed,  by  bracketed  fixtures  on  the 
wall  panels  and  a  chandelier  just  under  the  ventilator.  The  rafters  are 
all  dressed  and  open  to  view,  and  the  ceiling  is  formed  on  the  back  of 
them  by  narrow  tongued-and-grooved  cypress  lining.  Bafters  and  ceil- 
ing are  finished  naturally.  The  inside  brick-work  is  laid  up  with  flush 
joints  and  is  painted  of  a  light-buff  color  in  oil.  The  advantage  and 
durability  of  this  style  of  finish  over  plastering  is  indisputable.  The 
fixed  apparatus  consists  chiefly  of  Sargent  machines,  which  are  for  the 
most  part  secured  to  the  walls.  The  floor  apparatus  is  portable.  The 
dressing  rooms,  which  communicate  by  a  doorway  with  the  main  hall  at 
its  south  end,  have  also  a  door  opening  from  the  east  end  of  the  entrance 
hall.  There  are  4  dressing  rooms — 2  on  the  first  floor  and  2  on  the 
third — containing  in  all  226  lockers.  On  the  first  floor  are  6  set  bowls, 
with  hot  and  cold  water,  2  baths,  and  2  water-closets,  all  of  approved 
pattern. 

We  have  here  produced  the  plans  and  descriptions  of  the  Johns  Hop- 
kins University  and  the  Dickinson  College  gymnasia  for  the  purpose 
of  showing  that  commodious  and  well-fitted  gymnasia  can  be  had  at  a 
comparatively  slight  cost.  If  an  institution  can  afford  to  decorate  its 
campus  with  an  elegant  building,  architecturally  considered,  we!  and 
608 


PHYSICAL    TRAINING    IN    AMERICAN    COLLEGES. 


81 


good.  But  it -should  not  be  supposed  that  it  is  necessary  to  expend 
thirty  or  forty  thousand  dollars  in  order  to  provide  gymnastic  and  bath- 
ing facilities  for  250  or  300  students.  In  our  opinion,  the  Lebigh  and 
Amherst  gymnasia  cost  more  than  was  necessary,  needless  expense 


Street. 


\ 


(hjmnftsiwn. 

38'.0"x  89'.n"- 


Plan  of  Johns  Hopkins  University  Gymnasium. 

having  been  incurred  in  finishing  the  walls  with  costly  linings  of  wood.. 
The  total  cost  of  the  Johns  Hopkins  Gymnasium,  with  all  its  accessories 
and  fittings,  including  apparatus,  was  not  far  from  $10,000. 

THE  DICKINSON   COLLEGE    GYMNASIUM. 

The  Dickinson  College  Gymnasium,  at  Carlisle,  Pa.,  was  completed 
in  1884.  The  building  has  a  frontage  of  120  feet  on  a  village  street,  and 
is  conveniently  accessible  from  all  the  college  buildings.  In  plan  it  is 
a  parallelogram,  with  a  wing  at  each  end.  The  main  hall  is  40  by  75 
feet  on  the  floor,  and  is  accessible  from  the  campus  by  means  of  a  spa- 
cious entrance  hall  through  the  east  wing,  which  is  23  by  62  feet,  two 
stories  high,  and  contains  the  dressing  rooms,  baths,  offices,  examining 
room,  etc.  The  opposite,  or  west  wing,  is  23  by  87  by  20  feet,  one  story 
high,  and  contains  the  bowling  alleys,  three  in  number.  This  wing  is> 
entered  from  the  main  hall.  The  building  is  constructed  of  brick,  withi 
stone  sills,  and  is  covered  by  a  simple  open-timbered  roof,  the  trusses 
being  placed  about  15  feet  apart  and  forming  bays,  each  of  which  is. 

5068— No.  5 6 

609 


82 


CIRCULARS    OF    INFORMATION    FOR    1885. 


pierced  by  a  large  window,  admitting  ample  light  and  serving  for  a  good 
natural  ventilation.  The  walls  are  finished  with  flush  joints  for  paint- 
ing, and  the  woodwork  throughout  is  finished  "naturally"  in  oil,  and 
is  of  the  best  material.  To  complete  the  building,  including  bowling 


Gymnasium. 


Alley. 


Plan  of  Dickinson  College  Gymnasium. 

alleys,  but  exclusive  of  plumbing  and  the  fittings  of  the  dressing  room 
and  main  hall,  cost  $7,300. 

THE  BUILDING  OF   THE  NEW  YORK  ATHLETIC   CLUB. 

The  building  of  the  New  York  Athletic  Club  is  not  a  gymnasium 
only;  it  is  a  fully  equipped  club  house.  Situated  on  the  south-west 
corner  of  Sixth  avenue  and  Fifty-fifth  street,  it  extends  75  feet  on  the 
avenue  and  95  on  Fifty-fifth  street,  and  is  four  stories  high. 

The  basement  contains  six  bowling  alleys  and  a  rifle  range.  In  the 
first  story  there  are  facilities  for  Turkish  and  Eussian  bathing,  and  a 
swimming  bath  66  feet  long  by  20  wide.  The  second  story  contains  a 
reception  hall,  parlor,  reading  room,  billiard  rooms,  and  a  restaurant. 

610 


BUILDING  FOE   THE   NEW   YORK   ATHLETIC   CLUB. 


PHYSICAL    TRAINING    IN    AMERICAN    COLLEGES. 


83 


BASEMENT 


Building  of  New  York  Athletic  Club. 


611 


CIRCULARS    OF    INFORMATION    FOR    1885. 


612 


THIRD      STORY      PLAN 

Building  of  New  York  Athletic  Club. 


PHYSICAL    TRAINING    IN    AMERICAN    COLLEGES. 


85 


Ou  the  third  floor  are  a  thousand  lockers,  a  lavatory,  douche  room,  re- 
ception room,  and  sparring  room.  The  entire  area  of  the  fourth  floor  is 
occupied  by  the  gymnasium ;  it  is  22  feet  from  floor  to  ceiling,  light  and 
airy.  Around  this  hall,  12  feet  from  the  floor,  extends  a  track  for  the 
use  of  runners;  twenty-two  laps  of  it  make  a  mile. 


— —  CALLERY   PI-AM 

Building  of  New  York  Athletic  Club. 


613 


86 


CIRCULARS    OF    INFORMATION    FOR    1885. 


The  cost  of  the  building  was  $250,000.    The  club  is  in  a  flourishing 
condition,  with  fifteen  hundred  members  and  three  hundred  more  wait- 


KOOF  AND     SUPERSTRUCTURE 

Building  of  New  York  Athletic  Club. 

ing  anxiously  to  get  in.    The  initiation  fee  is  $50,  and  the  annual  dues 
$30.     Mr.  William  E.  Travers  is  the  president. 

The  tendency  of  the  builders  of  our  best  and  newest  gymnasia  is 
to  incorporate  certain  of  the  features  of  those  of  ancient  Greece.  This 
is  most  manifest  in  the  liberal  bathing  facilities  and  the  means  afforded 
for  social  intercourse  and  amusement  in  the  best  of  the  gymnasia 
above  described.  The  ideal  gymnasium  would  be  in  close  proximity  to 
the  fields  devoted  to  athletic  sports.  At  present  the  Hemenway  Gym- 
nasium approaches  the  ancient  type  more  nearly  in  this  respect  than 
any  other  known  to  us.  % 

NORMAL   AND  PREPARATORY   SCHOOLS. 


It  appears  from  the  Report  of  the  Commissioner  of  Education  for 
1873  that  out  of  a  list  of  119  normal  schools  in  the  United  States  only 
17  claimed  to  possess  a  gymnasium.  The  Commissioner's  Keport  for 
1882-'83  shows  that  19  out  of  119  public  normal  schools,  and  1C  out  of 
114  private  normal  schools,  had  gymnasia.  As  regards  preparatory 
schools,  the  same  Eeport  notices  the  fact  that  56  out  of  157  of  them  had 
gymnasia. 

614 


PHYSICAL    TRAINING    IN    AMERICAN    COLLEGES.  87 

YOUNG  MEN'S  CHRISTIAN  ASSOCIATION  GYMNASIA. 

GENERAL   CHARACTER. 

As  a  class,  the  gymnasia  belonging  to  the  Young  Men's  Christian 
Associations  are  better  furnished  and  officered  than  those  belonging  to 
the  two  classes  of  schools  above  mentioned.  Since  1869,  when  the  New 
York  Young  Men's  Christian  Association  opened  a  gymnasium  in  its 
new  building,  "physical  culture"  has  been  a  prominent  feature  in  Asso- 
ciation work.  The  Young  Men's  Christian  Association  Year  Book  for 
1884,  p.  141,  states  that  "83  associations  report  attention  to  physical 
culture;  68  of  these  through  gymnasia  and  23  through  other  means, 
including  base  ball,  rambling,  rowing,  and  swimming  clubs,  bowling 
alleys,  health  lifts,  and  classes  in  calisthenics."  Since  this  statement 
applies  to  the  United  States  and  Canada,  and  only  two  of  the  Canadian 
associations  report  gymnasia,  66  appears  to  be  the  correct  number 
for  the  United  States,  or  rather  67,  since  the  Boston  Young  Men's  Chris- 
tian Union  Gymnasium  properly  belongs  in  this  category,  even  though 
its  managers  and  patrons  represent  a  different  type  of  theology  from 
that  of  the  affiliated  associations. 

In  the  days  of  primitive  Christianity  "  gymuastical  sports  and  exer- 
cises" were  classed  with  the  "madness  of  the  theater,  huntings,  and 
horse-racings,"  and  those  addicted  to  them  were  required  "either  to 
leave  them  off  or  be  rejected  from  baptism."  Superintendents  of  gym- 
nasia probably  correspond  as  closely  as  any  class  of  modern  men  to 
the  ancient  "curators  of  the  common  games  and  practicers  in  the 
Olympic  games,"  who,  with  "  charioteers,  gladiators,  minstrels,  harpers, 
dancers,  and  vintners,"  were  commanded  by  the  apostolic  constitutions 
either  to  quit  such  callings  or  be  rejected  from  baptism. 

The  gymnasia  of  the  Young  Men's  Christian  Associations  in  the  fol- 
lowing named  cities  have  their  own  salaried  superintendents,  as  is 
shown  by  the  published  lists  of  officers:  Baltimore,  Md.;  Boston;  Mass.; 
Brooklyn,  N.  Y.;  Buffalo,  N.  Y.;  Chicago,  111.;  Cleveland,  Ohio;  Indian- 
apolis, Ind.;  Newark,  N.  J.;  Newburyport,  Mass.;  New  York,  N.  Y.; 
Philadelphia,  Pa.;  Pittsburg,  Pa.;  Providence,  E.  I.;  San  Francisco, 
Cal.,  and  Washington,  D.  C. 

The  Young  Men's  Christian  Association  gymnasia,  as  a  class,  do 
not  compare  favorably  with  college  gymnasia,  and  chiefly  so  because 
they  are  placed  in  an  out-of  the-way  corner  of  the  building,  and  are 
ill  ventilated  and  poorly  lighted.  This  criticism  does  not  apply  to  all 
of  them ;  but  in  too  many  cases  the  gymnasium,  even  in  imposing  and 
commodious  Young  Men's  Christian  Association  buildings,  is  placed  at 
or  below  the  level  of  the  ground.  The  Brooklyn  association  is  to  be 
commended  for  its  plan  of  erecting  a  gymnasium  annex,  which  is  now 
building  at  an  estimated  cost  of  between  $90,000  and  $100,000.  It  is 

615 


88  CIRCULARS    OF    INFORMATION   FOR    1885. 

the  intention  of  the  projectors  of  this  Brooklyn  gymnasium  to  make  it 
the  best  of  its  class. 

BOSTON  YOUNG  MEN'S   CHRISTIAN  UNION   GYMNASIUM. 

At  present  the  best  specimens  of  the  type  are  those  of  the  Boston 
"Young  Men's  Christian  Association  and  the  Boston  Young  Men's  Chris- 
tian Union.  The  Union  gymnasium  is  on  the  whole  the  more  worthy 
of  the  two  of  imitation,  since  it  contains  a  large  number,  of  the  Sar- 
gent developing  appliances,  and  is  under  the  medical  direction  of  Dr. 
Sargent  himself. 

The  following  extracts  from  a  recent  circular  indicate  what  are  the 
•distinctive  features  of  this  gymnasium  : 

The  Union  gymnasium  is  136  feet  long,  22  feet  high,  and  has  a  floor  space  of  6,200 
square  feet,  exclusive  of  dressing  and  bath  rooms. 

The  room  is  well  lighted  on  every  side,  thoroughly  ventilated,  has  indirect  steam 
heat,  and  the  exercising  floor  is  above  the  street  level. 

The  dressing  rooms  are  large  and  spacious,  and  contain  over  900  lockers. 

The  bathing  facilities  are  ample,  there  being  13  sponge-bath  rooms,  8  bowls,  3 
tubs,  and  1  shower  room. 

'A  running  track  has  been  arranged  on  the  main  floor  with  a  course  of  26  laps  to  a 
snile,  unobstructed  by  apparatus,  and  open  to  runners  at  all  times  during  gymnasium 
hours. 

The  management  aim  to  make  the  gymnasium  beneficial  to  all  ages  and  to  all  con- 
ditions. 

By  the  use  of  the  adjustable  weights  and  appliances,  the  exercises  can  be  adapted 
to  the  "strength  of  the  strong  and  the  weakness  of  the  weak." 

Dr.  Sargent  will  examine  those  who  desire  it,  and  make  out  a  book  with  specific 
directions  for  exercise,  diet,  sleep,  bathing,  etc.,  based  upon  the  data  ascertained 
from  the  examination.  Each  book  is  furnished  with  a  blank  form ;  and  those  who 
wish  may  have  their  measurements  entered,  and  their  condition  compared  with  the 
average  man  of  the  same  age,  weight,  etc. 

Terms,  including  the  Union  membership  (one  dollar),  and  entitling  to  all  its  privi- 
leges : 
For  one  year,  entitling  to  use  of  gymnasium,  after  7  P.M.,  and  on  holidays 

for  such  time  as  it  may  be  open $5  00 

For  one  year,  entitling  to  use  of  gymnasium  at  all  times  when  open 8  00 

Keys,  to  be  refunded  on  return  of  same 50 

There  is  no  extra  charge  for  consultation  with,  and  examination  by,  Dr.  Sargent, 
instruction,  use  of  baths  and  dressing  closets  in  the  large  dressing  rooms. 

Dr.  Sargent  will  give  during  the  fall  and  winter  season  a  course  of  practical  talks 
on  "  the  theories  and  principles  of  physical  traiuing." 

The  gymnasium  is  open  from  8  A.M.  to  9.45  P.M. 

THE    BROOKLYN  YOUNG  MEN'S  CHRISTIAN  ASSOCIATION  GYMNASIUM. 

This  gymnasium,  the  best  of  its  class,  is  now  (1885)  in  course  of  con- 
struction. It  constitutes  a  separate  building  in  the  nature  of  an  annex 
to  the  Young  Men's  Christian  Association  building,  whose  entrance 
is  on  Bond  street.  The  gymnasium  building,  which  is  100  feet  deep, 
has  a  frontage  on  Hanover  place  of  60  feet.  The  structure,  which  was 

616 


Hanover  Place  Front. 
BROOKLYN   Y.  M.  C.  A.  GYMNASIUM. 


"BROOKLYN 


-  R-AN  OF  (CELLAR.  -  - 


1.  Boiler  room,  engine  room,  workshop,  and  well. 

"2.  Four  80-feet  bowling  alleys. 

3.  Bottom  part  of  swimming  tank. 

4.  Coal  cellar— to  hold  300  tons. 

5.  Extra  locker  space. 

6.  Cellar. 

7.  Mechanical  class  room. 

8.  Room  to  stall  bicycles. 

9.  Passage-way  to  boys'  quarters — separate  entrance,  direct  from  the  street,. 
10  Boys'  meeting  room. 

11.  Boys'  gymnasium  and  play  room. 


30 


3t 


32 


12.  Six  hot  and  cold  bath  tubs.  29. 

13.  Ten  sponge  baths.  30. 

14.  Eight  hundred  locker  space.  31. 

15.  Swimming  bath,  14x45.  32. 

16.  Russian,  shower,  needle,  and  douche 

bath  room.  33. 

17.  Lavatory.  34. 

18.  Washbowls.  35. 

19.  Gymnasium  instructor's  office.  36. 

20.  Bowling  alley  room.  37. 

21.  Small  lecture  hall — for  prayer  meet-  38. 

ings,  Bible  classes,  &c. 

22.  Inquirers'  room. 

23.  Private  passage  to  gymnasium.  39. 

24.  Passage  to  lavatories.  40. 

25.  Lavatories.  41. 

26.  Ladies'  lavatory.  42. 

27.  Cloak  room  ;  also  for  keeping  of  val-  43. 

uables  of  gymnasium  members. 

28.  Area  reserved  for  light  and  conserva- 

tory. 


Members'  parlor. 

Reception  and  amusement  room. 

Inner  vestibule. 

Outer  vestibule  and  main  entrance  to 
the  building. 

Office  for  committees. 

General  Secretary's  private  office. 

Assistant  Secretary's  office. 

Treasurer's  office. 

Board  room. 

Grand  stairway  to  the  main  audito- 
rium, with  two  fire-proof  vaults  be- 
neath. 

Ticket  office. 

Hallway. 

Librarian's  office  anl  library. 

Reading  room. 

Side  entrance  to  janitor's  rooms  and 
exit  from  main  hall. 


— -  PL.A.MOE*  SECOND  fil 


44.  Floor  of  gymnasium— all  clear  space. 

45.  Platform  or  stage. 

46.  Parquette. 

47.  Air  vent. 

48.  Lavatories. 

49.  Lower  foyer. 

50.  Class  room. 

51.  Landing  and  passage. 

52.  Class  room,  or  office  for  rent. 

53.  Class  room. 

54.  Class  room. 

55.  Balcony. 

56.  Ladies'  retiring  or  cloak  room. 

57.  Gentlemen's  retiring  or  coat  room. 


52 


58. 
59. 
60. 
61. 
62. 
65. 
6t5. 
67. 
68. 
69. 
70. 
71. 
72. 
73. 
74. 
75. 
76. 
77. 
78. 
79. 
80. 


>  Elevated  running  track  in  gymnasium. 

Spectators'  gallery. 

Passage-way  to  retiring  rooms  of  music  hall. 

Gentlemen's  retiring  room. 

Lavatory. 

Ladies'  private  entrance  to  the  stage. 

Side  exit  from  hall. 

Dress  circle. 

Air  vent. 

Lavatory. 

Upper  foyer. 

Passage  to  janitor's  room. 

China  closet. 

Diuing  hall. 

Class  room. 

Class  room. 

Passage. 


Class  room. 
Class  room. 


PHYSICAL    TKAINING    IN    AMERICAN    COLLEGES.  89 

planned  by  Parfitt  Brothers,  architects,  Brooklyn,  is  built  of  brick  and 
terra  cotta  and  Long  Meadow  red  sandstone. 

The  first  floor  contains  a  locker  room  with  about  200  public  and  100 
private  lockers;  also  hot-water  baths,  sponge  baths,  large  shower  baths, 
and  a  swimming  bath  45  feet  by  14,  besides  lavatories  and  an  in- 
structor's office.  In  the  basement  are  4  bowling-alleys  80  feet  long,  2 
60-horse-power  boilers,  and  a  coal  cellar  of  300-tons  capacity.  A  well 
50  feet  deep  and  5  feet  in  diameter,  calculated  to  yield  100  gallons  of 
water  per  minute,  has  here  been  dug  for  the  use  of  the  baths,  bowls,  and 
closets. 

The  gymnasium  is  in  the  second  story.  It  is  24  feet  high,  54  feet 
wide,  and  98  feet  deep.  The  running  track,  which  is  suspended  from 
the  roof,  is  5  feet  wide  and  has  22  laps  to  the  mile.  Its  floor  is  8  feet 
above  that  of  the  gymnasium.  The  ceiling,  which  is  of  the  open-roof 
description,  is  supported  on  6  elliptical  arches  of  wood,  each  built  of  12 
sections  of  1  by  6  inch  pieces  of  wood  laid  one  over  the  other,  bent  and 
bolted  into  the  shape  desired. 

It  is  worth  noting  that  in  the  Bond  street  building  the  Brooklyn 
Young  Men's  Christian  Association  will  provide  a  gymnasium  and  play- 
room especially  suited  for  boys. 

Future  builders  of  gymnasip  will  do  well  to  study  the  means  em- 
ployed in  this  gymnasium  and  in  the  Cornell  University  Gymnasium  for 
supporting  the  roof  by  arches  instead  of  by  pillars,  as  much  valuable 
floor  space  has  been  sacrificed  in  the  Hemenway,  Pratt,  and  Lehigh 
gymnasia  through  the  use  of  pillars  and  posts.  Suspended  running- 
tracks  are  to  be  preferred  when  they  are  practicable. 

Following  is  as  complete  a  statement  as  we  are  able  to  make  of  the 
facts  regarding  gymnasia  belonging  to  the  theological  schools  of 
America.  The  gymnasium  belonging  to  the  Hartford  Seminary  is  the 
best  of  its  class. 

017 


90 


CIRCULARS    OF    INFORMATION    FOR    1885. 


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618 


PHYSICAL    TEAINING    IN    AMERICAN    COLLEGES. 


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92  CIRCULARS    OF    INFORMATION    FOR    1885. 

ARCHITECTS  AND  FURNISHERS  OF  GYMNASIA. 

The  following  list  of  architects  who  have  planned  gymnasia  is  given 
for  the  convenience  of  those  who  may  have  occasion  hereafter  to  build 
or  remodel  gymnasia: 

Peabody  &  Stearns,  of  Boston,  Mass.,  planned  the  Hemenway  Gym- 
nasium. 

E.  L.  Roberts,  46  Broadway,  New  York  City,  planned  the  Pratt 
Gymnasium. 

Addison  Hutton,  400  Chestnut  street,  Philadelphia,  planned  the  Le- 
high  University  Gymnasium  and  the  Bryn  Mawr  Gymnasium. 

F.  C.  Withers,  New  York  City,  planned  the  National  Deaf-Mute  Col- 
lege Gymnasium. 

G.B.  Post,  New  York  City,  planned  the  Princeton  College  Gymnasium. 

J;  R.  Richaud, ,  planned  the  Dartmouth  College  Gymnasium. 

Charles  Babcock.  Professor  of  Architecture,  Cornell  University, 
planned  the  Cornell  Armory  and  Gymnasium. 

C.  W.  Clinton,  New  York  City,  planned  the  New  York  Athletic  Club 
Building. 

Parfitt  Brothers,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  planned  the  Brooklyn  Young 
Men's  Christian  Association  Gymnasium. 

Charles  L.  Carson,  corner  Charles  and  Lexington  streets,  Baltimore, 
planned  the  Johns  Hopkins  University  Gymnasium  and  the  Dickinson 
College  Gymnasium. 

The  names  of  the  most  reliable  manufacturers  of  gymnastic  appa- 
ratus are: 
American — 

Dr.  D.  A.  Sargent,  Cambridge,  Mass. 

Boston  Gymnasium  Construction  and  Supply  Company,  A.  H.  How- 
ard, Secretary,  9  Ashburton  place,  Boston,  Mass. 

Fred.  Medart,  J206  North  Main  street,  St.  Louis,  Mo. 

John  Gloy,  27  Johnson  street,  Chicago,  111. 
Foreign — 

Julius  Dietrich  &  Hannak,  Chemnitz,  Saxony. 

A.  Buczilowsky,  17  Kotheu  street,  Berlin,  Prussia. 

A.  A.  Stempel,  75  Albany  street,  Regent's  park,  London,  N.  W., 
England. 

Oscar  Knofe,  26  Pancras  road,  King's  cross,  London,  W.  C.,  England. 

MILITARY  DRILL  AND  DISCIPLINE  A  PHYSICAL  TRAINING. 

"Solitary  men  dreaming  in  their  corners,"  as  well  as  the  most  severely 
practical  men  of  affairs,  when  proposing  schemes  for  the  betterment  of 
the  "  discipline  of  the  common  weal "  through  educational  reforms,  have 
frequently,  perhaps  usually,  urged  the  value  of  military  drill  and  dis- 
cipline as  a  means  of  training  young  men. 

620 


PHYSICAL    TRAINING    IN    AMERICAN    COLLEGES.  93 

VIEWS   OF  LUTHER   AND  POLE. 

Martin  Luther,  while  praising  bodily  exercises  as  a  means  to  health 
and  as  a  safeguard  against  "the  temptations  of  the  fiend,"  does  not 
fail  to  commend  them  as  needful  for  rendering  "  us  Germans  fit  and 
always  prepared  for  joining  the  army  nnd  for  battle.  For  verily  our 
boys  will  have  to  defend  land  and  people  and  to  be  warriors." 

Eeginald  Pole,  when  outlining  to  Master  Lupset  his  idea  of  the  "  most 
noble  institute  that  ever  was  devised  in  any  common  weal,"  declares  that 
the  nobility  should  "be  constrained,  by  lawful  punishment,  to  exercise 
themselves  in  all  such  things  and  feats  of  arms  as  shall  be  for  the  defense 
of  our  realm  necessary;  the  which  they  should  do  with  the  same  dili- 
gence that  the  plowmen  labor  and  till  the  ground>  for  the  common  food." 

VIEWS   OF  MILTON. 

John  Milton,  in  his  tractate  on  education,  imagines  an  "institution 
of  breeding,  which  should  be  equally  good  both  for  peace  and  war." 
"  The  exercise  which  I  first  commend,"  he  says, "  is  the  exact  use  of  their 
weapon,  to  guard  and  to  strike  safely  with  edge  or  point.  This  will  keep 
them  healthy,  nimble,  strong,  and  well  in  breath;  is  also  the  likeliest 
means  to  make  them  grow  large  and  tall,  and  to  inspire  them  with  a 
gallant  and  fearless  courage,  which  being  tempered  with  seasonable 
lectures  and  precepts  to  make  them  of  true  fortitude  and  patience,  will 
turn  into  a  native  and  heroic  valor,  and  make  them  hate  the  cowardice 
of  doing  wrong.  They  must  be  also  practiced  in  all  the  locks  and  gripes 
of  wrestling,  wherein  Englishmen  are  wont  to  excel,  as  need  may  often 
be  in  fight  to  tug,  to  grapple,  and  to  close.  And  this  perhaps  will  be 
enough  wherein  to  prove  and  heat  their  single  strength."  He  further 
recommends  that  all  the  youth,  while  engaged  in  study  "under  vigilant 
eyes,"  should  "  about  two  hours  before  supper,  by  a  sudden  alarm  or 
watchword,  be  called  out  to  their  military  motions,  under  sky  or  covert 
according  to  the  season,  as  was  the  Roman  wont;  first  on  foot,  then,  as 
their  age  permits,  on  horseback  to  all  the  art  of  cavalry ;  that  having 
in  sport,  but  with  much  exactness  and  daily  muster,  served  out  the  ru- 
diments of  their  soldiership  in  all  the  skill  of  embattling,  marching,  en- 
camping, fortifying,  besieging,  and  battering  with  all  the  helps  of  an- 
cient and  modern  stratagems,  tactics,  and  warlike  maxims,  they  may, 
as  it  were  out  of  a  long  war,  come  forth  renowned  and  perfect  command- 
ers in  the  service  of  their  country."  The  effect  of  classical  studies 
and  the  lessons  derived  from  the  experiences  of  civil  war  are  strangely 
mingled  in  this  tractate. 

MILITARY   GYMNASTICS  IN  ENGLAND. 

Gymnastics,  in  the  Greek  or  German  sense,  have  never  been  popular 
in  the  public  schools  of  England,  or  with  the  devotees  of  manly  sports 
outside  of  them;  but  volunteer  military  companies  have  sprung  up  at 

621 


94  CIRCULARS    OF    INFORMATION    FOR    1885. 

the  schools  and  universities  in  recent  years.  In  1822,  Captain  Clias, 
who  had  been  instrumental  in  introducing  gymnastic  training  for  re- 
cruits into  the  Swiss/  and  French  armies,  introduced  gymnastics  into 
the  British  army  and  navy.  For  the  period  of  two  years  and  a  half  he 
was  Professor  of  Gymnastics  in  the  Royal  Military  Academy,  at  Wool- 
wich. He  occupied  this  post  until  September,  1825,  when  instruction 
in  gymnastics  was  intrusted  to  non-commissioned  officers.  After  along 
period  of  disuse  military  gymnastics  were  revived  in  England — after 
the  Crimean  war.  In  1861  a  central  school  of  gymnastics  was  estab- 
lished at  Aldershot  for  the  purpose  of  supplying  instructors  to  the  army. 
This  action  was  taken  in  accordance  with  the  recommendations  of  the 
report  of  a  commission  appointed  in  1859  to  examine  into  the  systems 
of  military  gynmasticstheu  in  vogue  on  the  Continent.  Later,  by  order 
of  Lord  de  Grey,  gymnasia  were  built  at  all  barracks. 

MAOLAEEN'S  SYSTEM  OF  GYMNASTICS. 

The  late  Archibald  Maclaren  drew  up  the  code  of  instruction  which 
was  adopted  by  the  authorities.  Mr.  Maclaren's  writings  and  teach- 
ings on  physical  education  are  the  best  that  England  has  yet  produced. 
The  principles  of  physical  training,  as  expounded  by  Mr.  Maclaren,  are 
essentially  the  same  as  those  which  lie  at  the  basis  of  the  Sargent  sys- 
tem. The  followers  of  each  labor  for  the  same  ends,  though  by  methods 
not  always  identical.  A  series  of  physical  measurements,  periodically 
made  and  carefully  registered,  was  employed  by  Mr.  Maclaren  from 
the  first.  Similar  measurements,  it  will  be  remembered,  were  instituted 
by  Dr.  Hitchcock,  at  Amherst,  in  1861,  the  same  year  that  Mr.  Maclaren 
began  his  work  in  the  British  army.  The  Arnherst  measurements  were, 
indeed,  intended  to  determine  the  rate  of  growth  and  development;  but 
they  served  for  statistical  rather  than  diagnostic  purposes.  Mr.  Mac- 
lareu  used  the  data  obtained  by  his  examinations  in  determining  the 
kind  and  amount  of  exercise  to  be  required  of  his  pupils. 

PUBLICATIONS   BY   MR.    MACLAREN. 

Besides  his  "Military  System  of  Gymnastic  Exercises  for  the  Use  of 
Instructors",  originally  published  in  1862,  two  other  works  by  Mr.  Mac- 
laren, viz.,  "Training  in  Theory  and  Practice",  and  "Physical  Educa- 
tion ",  have  been  published  respectively  by  Macmillan  &  Co.  and  the 
Clarendon  Press.  The  latter  work  well  deserves  the  unstinted  praise 
bestowed  upon  it  by  that  high  authority  on  hygiene,  Dr.  E.  A.  Parkes, 
who  says  of  it  that  it  "  should  be  in  the  hands  of  every  one."  Its  Part 
I,  comprising  101  pages  taken  up  with  an  essay  upon  "  Growth  and 
Development,"  is  a  lucid  and  admirable  exposition  of  the  modern  views 
of  physical  training,  and  contains  apt  characterizations  of  the  German 
and  French  systems  of  military  gymnastics,  which  were  adopted  re- 
spectively in  the  years  1845  and  1847.  Dr.  Ball,  in  Buck's  Hygiene 
and  Public  Health,  New  York,  1879,  declares  that  Mr.  Maclaren's  code 

622 


PHYSICAL    TRAINING    IN    AMERICAN    COLLEGES.  95 

of  instruction-  is  much  less  elaborate  than  the  French  system,  while  it 
is  more  thorough  and  practical  than  the  German,  and  is  based  upon  the 
sound  principle  that  the  first  requisite  is  to  develop  physical  power  by 
a  simple  and  gradually  progressive  course  of  exercises,  after  which  the 
practical  application  of  this  acquired  power  to  the  special  duties  of  the 
soldier  becomes  a  com  para  tively  easy  task. 

DR.    PARKES   ON  MACLAREN'S  CODE. 

As  yet  no  such  comprehensive  system  as  that  contained  in  the  Mac- 
laren  code  has  been  adopted  for  the  United  States  Army.  The  best 
summary  account  of  this  code  that  has  come  under  our  notice  is  the 
following,  contained  in  the  sixth  edition  of  Parkes's  "Practical  Hy- 
giene ",  pp.  584-585  : 

The  instructions  have  two  great  objects:  (1)  To  assist  the  physical  development 
of  the  recruit ;  (2)  to  strengthen  and  render  supple  the  frame  of  the  trained  sol- 
dier. Every  recruit  is  now  ordered  to  have  three  months'  gymnastic  training  during 
(or,  if  judged  expedient  by  a  medical  officer,  in  lieu  of  part  of)  his  ordinary  drill.  Two 
months  are  given  before  he  commences  rifle  practice,  and  one  month  afterward. 
This  training  is  superintended  by  a  medical  officer,  who  will  be  responsible  that  it  is 
done  properly,  and  who  will  have  the  power  to  continue  the  exercises  beyond  the 
prescribed  time,  if  he  deems  it  necessary.  The  exercise  for  the  recruit  is  to  last  only 
one  hour  a  day,  and  in  addition  he  will  have  from  two  to  three  hours  <ff  ordinary 
drill. 

The  trained  infantry  soldier  is  ordered  to  go  through  a  gymnastic  course  of  three 
months'  duration  every  year,  one  hour  being  given  every  other  day.  The  cavalry 
soldier  is  to  be  taught  fencing  and  sword  exercise  in  lieu  of  gymnastics. 

The  exercises  have  been  arranged  with  great  care,  and  present  a  progressive  course 
of  the  most  useful  kind.  The  early  exercise  commences  with  walking  and  running  ; 
leaping,  with  and  without  the  pole,  follows;  and  then  the  exercises  with  apparatus 
commence,  the  order  being  the  horizontal  beam,  the  vaulting  bar,  and  the  vaulting 
horse.  All  these  are  called  exercises  of  progression.  The  elementary  exercises  follow, 
viz.,  with  the  parallel  bars,  the  pair  of  rings,  the  row  of  rings,  the  elastic  ladder,  the 
horizontal  bar,  the  bridge  ladder,  and  the  ladder  plank.  Then  follow  the  advanced 
exercises  of  climbing  on  the  slanting  and  vertical  pole,  the  slanting  and  vertical  rope, 
and  the  knotted  rope. 

Finally,  the  most  advanced  exercises  consist  of  escalading,  first  against  a  wall,  and 
then  against  a  prepared  building. 

It  might  be  thought  that  so  complete  and  methodical  a  system  as  that 
of  Mr.  Maclaren,  its  good  results  being  well  known,  would  have  com- 
mended itself  to  the  teachers  of  boys.  But  so  late  as  1869,  Mr.  Macla- 
ren calls  attention  to  the  fact  that,  excepting  the  two  military  colleges 
of  Woolwich  and  Sandhurst,  and  Eadley  College,  not  one  of  the  large 
educational  establishments  in  England  was  provided  with  a  regularly 
organized  gymnasium  with  properly  qualified  teachers.  The  case  stands 
only  slightly  better  now. 

EARLY   SCHEMES  FOR  MILITARY  TRAINING    IN   THE   UNITED   STATES. 

On  January  21,  1790,  President  Washington  transmitted  to  the  first 
Senate  of  the  United  States  a  comprehensive  report  from  General  H. 

623 


96  CIECULAES    OF    INFORMATION    FOR    1885. 

Knox,  the  Secretary  of  War,  on  a  plan  for  "  a  national  system  of  defense 
adequate  to  the  probable  exigencies  of  the  United  States,  whether  arising 
from  internal  or  external  causes."  In  passing  we  may  remark  that  this 
was  seven  months  prior  to  the  penning  of  Dr.  Eush's  eulogy  of  agri- 
cultural and  mechanical  labor  as  an  amusement.  Among  the  princi- 
ples on  which  Secretary  Knox  based  his  plan  are  the  following : 

That  every  man  of  the  proper  age  and  ability  of  body  is  firmly  Wound,  by  the  social 
compact,  to  perform  personally  his  proportion  of  military  duty  for  the  defense  of  the 
state. 

That  all  men  of  the  legal  military  age  should  be  armed,  enrolled,  and  held  respon- 
sible for  different  degrees  of  military  service. 

PLAN   OF   SECRETARY  KNOX,    1790. 

The  plan  called  for  the  enrollment  of  those  liable  to  bear  arms  into 
three  classes,  described  as  follows : 

The  first  class  shall  comprehend  the  youth  of  eighteen,  nineteen,  and  twenty  y«--ars 
of  age,  to  be  denominated  the  advanced  corps.  The  second  class  shall  include  the 
men  from  twenty-one  to  forty-five  years  of  age,  to  be  denominated  the  main  corps. 

The  third  class  shall  comprehend,  inclusively,  the  men  from  forty-six  to  sixty  years 
of  age,  to  be  denominated  the  reserved  corps. 

Of  the  advanced  corps. 

The  advanced  corps  are  designed  not  only  as  a  school  in  which  the  youth  of  the 
United  States  are  to  be  instructed  in  the  art  of  war,  but  they  are,  in  all  cases  ol"  exi- 
gence, to  serve  as  an  actual  defense  to  the  community. 

The  whole  of  the  armed  corps  shall  be  clothed,  armed,  and  subsisted  at  the  expense 
of  the  United  States;  and  all  the  youth  of  the  said  corps  in  each  State  shall  be  en- 
camped together,  if  practicable,  or  by  legions,  which  encampments  shall  be  denomi- 
nated the  annual  camps  of  discipline.  The  youth  of  eighteen  and  nineteen  years  shall  be 
disciplined  for  thirty  days  successively  in  each  year;  and  those  of  twenty  years  shall 
be  disciplined  only  for  ten  days  in  each  year. 

At  the  age  of  twenty-one  years,  every  individual  having  served  in  the  manner  and 
for  the  time  prescribed,  shall  receive  an  honorary  certificate  thereof,  on  parchment, 
and  signed  by  the  legionary  general  and  inspector.  And  the  said  certificate,  or 
an  attested  copy  of  the  register  aforesaid,  shall  be  required  as  an  indispensable  qual- 
ification for  exercising  any  of  the  rights  of  a  free  citizen,  until  after  the  age  of 

years.  No  amusements  should  be  admitted  in  camp  but  those  which  correspond  with 
war:  the  swimming  of  men  and  horses,  running,  wrestling,  and  such  other  exercises 
as  should  render  the  body  flexible  aud  vigorous. 

This  plan  failed  of  adoption,  although  the  need  of  a  well-trained  mi- 
litia had  been  sharply  and  abundantly  emphasized  by  the  events  of  the 
revolutionary  war.  The  failure  of  this  plan  was  attributed  to  the 
great  expense  and  the  administrative  difficulties  which  it  was  believed 
it  would  entail. 

MR.  HARRISON'S  PLAN,  1817  AND  1819. 

In  1817,  in  a  report  on  the  reorganization  of  the  militia,  made  to  the 

House  of  Representatives  by  Mr.  Harrison,  it  was  recommended  that 

"military  instruction  should  not  be  given  in  distant  schools,  but  that 

it  should  form  a  branch  of  education  in  every  school  within  the  United 

624 


PHYSICAL    TRAINING    IN    AMERICAN    COLLEGES.  97 

States;  that  a  corps  of  military  instructors  should  be  formed  to  attend 
to  the  gymnastic  and  elementary  part  of  education  in  every  school  in 
the  United  States,  whilst  the  more  scientific  part  of  the  art  of  war 
should  be  communicated  by  professors  of  tactics,  to  be  established  in 
all  the  higher  seminaries." 

It  does  not  appear  that  this  scheme,  or  anything  like  it,  ever  received 
the  sanction  of  law,  although  it  was  again  brought  forward  for  adop- 
tion in  1819. 

UNITED    STATES   MILITARY   ACADEMY. 

Meanwhile  the  United  States  Military  Academy  at  West  Point,  in 
New  York,  had  been  instituted  for  the  professional  training  of  army 
officers.  Yet  the  bitter  lessons  of  the  war  of  the  Revolution  had  to  be 
enforced  by  those  of  the  war  of  1812  before  Congress  could  be  induced 
to  make  anything  like  adequate  provision  for  such  training. 

WASHINGTON'S  VIEWS. 

His  experiences  as  coinmander-m-chief  in  the  war  of  the  Eevolutiou 
caused  Washington  when  President  to  suggest  to  Congress  in  1793, 
and  again  in  1796,  the  establishment  of  an  academy  for  "the  study  of 
those  branches  of  the  military  art  which  can  scarcely  ever  be  obtained 
by  practice  alone."  Washington's  suggestions  bore  no  immediate  fruit, 
but  his  views  on. this  subject  were  adopted  by  his  successor. 

REPORT  OF   SECRETARY  JAMES   MCHENRY,    1800. 

Mr.  McHenry,  of  Maryland,  Secretary  of  War  under  President  John 
Adams,  made  an  elaborate  report  in  1800,  recommending  the  establish- 
ment of  a  military  academy,  to  consist  of  the  fundamental  school,  the 
school  of  engineers  and  artillerists,  the  school  ot  cavalry  and  infantry, 
and  the  school  of  the  navy.  Mr.  McHenry's  ideas  were  far  in  advance 
of  his  time,  and  were  little  regarded  until  after  the  war  of  1812.  In 
1802  the  United  States  Military  Academy  was  established  by  law,  but 
in  name  only,  for,  prior  to  1817,  there  was  but  little  system  or  regu- 
larity observed  in  the  instruction  given.  Cadets  were  admitted  without 
examination,  and  without  the  least  regard  to  their  age  or  qualifica- 
tions. Sylvanus  Thayer,  who  became  superintendent  in  1817,  in  the 
course  of  the  five  years  following  established  in  all  its  essential  feat- 
ures the  course  of  instruction  which  has  become  identified  with  the 
name  of  West  Point. 

PHYSICAL  TRAINING  AT  WEST  POINT  AND  ANNAPOLIS. 

Bodily  training,  under  the  heads  of  military  instruction  and  sword 
exercise,  has  received  marked  attention  from  the  first.  Dancing  is 
now  regularly  taught,  and  gymnastics  and  swimming  have  at  times  been 
regular  branches  of  instruction.  The  United  States  Naval  Academy 

625 
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98  CIRCULARS    OF   INFORMATION   FOR   1885. 

elates  from  the  year  1845.  Both  at  West  Point  and  at  Annapolis  the 
course  of  study  is  characterized  by  an  extended,  varied,  and  exacting 
system  of  bodily  exercise,  as  embraced  in  the  various  drills  and  branches 
of  practical  instruction.  Weaklings  in  body  are  prevented  from  enter- 
ing either  academy  by  the  requirement,  which  has  been  in  force  for 
many  years,  that  all  applicants  failing  to  pass  a  satisfactory  physical 
examination  at  the  hands  of  a  medical  board  shall  be  rejected.  Idlers 
and  dolts  lose  their  commissions.  The  absolute  control  and  constant 
supervision  and  inspection  to  which  all  cadets  are  subjected,  as  regards 
deportment,  dress,  studies,  exercise,  recreation,  diet,  and  rest,  are  produc- 
tive of  a  vigorous  manliness  which  is  much  less  uniformly  found  in  the 
graduates  of  other  institutions.  In  all  other  professional  schools  and 
in  the  majority  of  our  colleges  the  training  is  less  steadily  and  success- 
fully directed  toward  securing  mental  power,  moral  strength,  and  bodily 
ability. 

The  writer  is  strongly  convinced  that  the  best  that  has  yet  been  ac- 
complished in  the  United  States,  in  the  province  of  physical  training, 
has  been  accomplished  at  West  Point  and  at  Annapolis;  and,  while 
recognizing  fully  that  the  systems  there  in  operation  could  not  be  im- 
posed, without  undergoing  many  modifications,  upon  any  considerable 
portion  of  the  collegiate  youth  of  the  country,  he  cannot  forbear  recom- 
mending a  careful  study  of  those  systems  to  all  who  are  responsible 
for  the  training  of  boys  between  the  ages  of  twelve  and  twenty. 

It  is  eminently  to  be  desired  that  the  data  on  record  in  the  War  and 
Navy  Departments  touching  the  physical  condition,  academic  standing, 
and  professional  success  and  career  of  all  cadets,  from  the  time  of  their 
admission  to  the  academy  till  the  termination  of  their  service  by  dis- 
charge, resignation,  or  death,  should  be  statistically  digested  and  dis- 
cussed. The  publication  of  these  records  could  not  fail  to  be  helpful  to 
those  engaged  in  the  study  of  the  natural  history  of  the  student  class: 
it  would  be  of  very  great  pedagogical  value. 

The  published  reports  of  Medical  Director  A.  L.  Gihon,  U.  S.  N., 
upon  the  hygiene  of  the  Naval  Academy  and  on  the  rates  of  growth  of 
cadets  before  and  after  entering  the  academy,  serve  admirably  to  indi- 
cate what  might  be  done  in  this  direction.  A  satisfactory  comparison 
of  the  results  thus  far  obtained  under  the  Amherst,  Sargent,  Maclaren, 
West  Point,  and  Annapolis  systems  of  physical  training  is  as  yet  hardly 
feasible. 

CAPTAIN  PARTRIDGE'S  MILITARY  SCHOOLS,  1820-'53. 

Alden  Partridge,  captain  of  engineers  in  the  United  States  Army,  who 
was  the  immediate  predecessor  of  General  Sylvanus  Thayer  as  Super- 
intendent of  the  Military  Academy,  seems  to  have  been  the  first  person 
to  found  an  institution  modeled  after  that  at  West  Point.  Captain 
Partridge  left  the  Military  Academy  in  1817,  and  in  1818  resigned  from 
the  military  service  of  the  Government.  In  a  lecture  delivered  by  him 
688 


PHYSICAL    TRAINING   IN   AMERICAN    COLLEGES.  99 

in  1820  on  what  he  conceived  to  be  the  deficiencies  of  superior  edu- 
cation as  then  conducted,  Captain  Partridge  spoke  as  follows  : 

Another  defect  in  the  present  system  is  the  entire  neglect,  in  all  our  principal 
seminaries,  of  physical  education.  The  great  importance  and  even  absolute  neces- 
sity of  a  regular  and  systematic  course  of  exercise  for  the  preservation  of  health,  and 
confirming  and  rendering  vigorous  the  constitution,  must  be  evident  to  the  most  super- 
ficial observer.  It  is  for  want  of  this  that  so  many  of  our  most  promising  youths  lose 
their  health  by  the  time  they  are  prepared  to  enter  on  the  grand  theater  of  active  and 
useful  life.  That  the  health  of  the  closest  applicant  may  be  preserved,  when  he  is  sub- 
jected to  a  regular  and  systematic  course  of  exercises,  I  know  from  practical  experi- 
ence :  and  I  have  no  hesitation  in  asserting  that  in  nine  cases  out  of  ten  it  is  just  as 
easy  for  a  youth,  however  hard  he  may  study,  to  attain  the  age  of  manhood  with  a 
firm  and  vigorous  constitution,  as  it  is  to  grow  up  puny  and  debilitated,  incapable  of 
either  bodily  or  mental  exertion. 

PHYSICAL,  TRAINING-  UNDER   CAPTAIN  PARTRIDGE. 

Captain  Partridge  opened  his  American  Literary  Scientific  Academy 
at  Norwich,  Vt.,  his  native  town,  September  4,.  1820.  In  a  card  pub- 
lished in  April,  1825,  on  the  eve  of  his  departure  for  Middletown, 
Conn.,  for  the  purpose  of  reopening  his  seminary  in  that  place,  Cap- 
tain Partridge  set  forth  the  results  of  his  labors  at  Norwich.  He 
claimed  that  his  plan  of  "  connecting  mental  improvement  with  a  regu- 
lar course  of  bodily  exercises  and  the  full  development  of  the  physical 
powers,  the  whole  conducted  under  a  military  system  of  discipline," 
had  succeeded  beyond  his  most  sanguine  expectations.  Out  of  480 
pupils  who  had  entered  the  seminary  from  21  States,  only  one  had  died 
there.  "  Many  of  my  pupils,  and  those  the  closest  applicants  to  study," 
he  says,  "  walk  with  facility  forty  miles  per  day.  On  a  recent  excur- 
sion to  the  summit  of  the  most  elevated  of  the  White  Mountains,  with 
a  party  of  50  of  my  pupils,  a  large  portion  of  them  walked,  on  the  last 
day,  42  miles.  Belonging  to  this  party  was  a  youth  of  but  twelve  years 
of  age,  who  walked  the  whole  distance,  160  miles,  carrying  his  knap- 
sack, and  returned  in  good  health."  It  would  be  interesting  to  know 
the  ultimate  stature  of  this  youth. 

Captain  Partridge  remained  only  three  years  at  Middletown.  He  was 
doubtless  impelled  to  abandon  his  seminary  there  from  the  refusal  of 
the  legislature  of  Connecticut  to  charter  the  institution  as  a  college. 
He  was  instrumental,  in  1834,  in  rehabilitating  the  institution  at  Nor- 
wich, which  became  known  as  "Norwich  University",  and  in  establish- 
ing military  schools  at  Portsmouth,  Va.,  in  1839,  at  Brandywine  Springs, 
Del.,  1833,  and  at  Bristol,  Pa.,  in  1853,  the  year  of  his  death. 

MILITARY   SCHOOLS  BEFORE   1801. 

•A  considerable  number  of  military  schools  and  colleges,  additional  to 
those  above  mentioned,  were  organized  before  the  War  of  the  Rebellion. 
The  more  important  of  them  were  established  in  the  Southern  States, 
and  were  in  several  cases  subsidized  by  the  State.  This  was  notably 
the  case  in  Virginia,  South  Carolina,  Louisiana,  Kentucky,  and  Ala- 
bama. The  Virginia  Military  Institute,  at  Lexington,  Va.,  the  Mill 

62? 


100  CIRCULARS    OF    INFORMATION   FOR    1885. 

tary  Institute  at  Frankfort,  Ky.,  and  the  Louisiana  State  Institute,  at 
Alexandria,  La.,  should  be  mentioned  in  this  connection.  It  has  been 
estimated  that  "one-tenth  of  the  Confederate  armies  was  commanded 
by  the  6Uves  of  the  Virginia  Military  Institute,  at  Lexington,  embrac- 
ing 3  major-generals,  30  brigadier-generals,  60  colonels,  50  lieutenant- 
colonels,  30  majors,  125  captains,  200  to  300  lieutenants".  General 
"Stonewall"  Jackson  was  long  a  professor  in  the  Virginia  Military  In- 
stitute. General  W.  T.  Sherman,  of  the  United  States  Army,  was  in 
1861  the  head  of  the  Louisiana  State  University,  which  had  been  organ- 
ized on  a  military  basis  in  the  previous  year.  At  the  North  the  mili- 
tary plan  of  education  was  chiefly  adopted  by  the  proprietors  of  private 
schools  for  boys.  Among  the  principal  schools  of  this  description  es- 
tablished prior  to  1861  we  may  mention,  Russell's  Collegiate  and  Com- 
mercial Institute,  at  New  Haven,  Conn. ;  the  Highland  Military  Acad- 
emy, Worcester,  Mass.;  Claverack  College,  Claverack,  N.  Y. 

EFFECT   OF   THE  WAR   IN  STIMULATING  MILITARY  DRILL. 

Once  the  war  opened,  military  drill  assumed  a  new  and  unprece- 
dented interest  in  the  ej-es  of  school  authorities.  The  educational 
literature  of  that  period  teems  with  schemes  for  the  introduction  of 
gym  nasties  -and  military  drill  into  public  school  courses.  As  early  as 
1861  military  drill  was  introduced  into  a  portion  of  the  public  schools 
in  the  city  of  Bangor,  Me.;  and  the  State  of  New  Jersey,  about  the  same 
time,  made  an  appropriation  of  money  for  military  instruction  in  her 
normal  school. 

MILITARY  DRILL  IN  BOSTON  SCHOOLS. 

Elementary  military  drill  was  experimentally  introduced  into  the 
Public  Latin,  English  High,  Eliot,  and  D wight  Schools  for  boys  in 
Boston  in  1863.  It  has  since  been  eliminated  from  the  grammar  schools, 
to  which  class  the  Eliot  and  the  D  wight  belong,  but  has  been  introduced 
into  all  the  high  schools  of  the  city  for  males.  Two  drills  a  week,  of  an 
hour  each,  are  required  of  all  boys  able  to  carry  a  musket. 

The  new  Public  Latin  and  English  High  School  house  in  Boston, 
which  was  opened  in  February,  1881,  is  provided  with  a  large  and  el- 
egant drill  hall,  and  a  commodious  and  well -furnished  modern  gym- 
nasium. The  gymnasium  remains  practically  worthless,  through  the 
inability  or  unwillingness  of  the  school  authorities  to  grapple  with  the 
problem  of  securing  proper  instructors.  The  publications  of  the  Boston 
school  committee  contain  several  elaborate  reports,  filled  with  com- 
mendable expressions  of  sentiment  on  the  subject  of  physical  education ; 
also  a  few  notes  and  regulations  regarding  gymnastic  and  calisthenic 
exercises ;  but  their  actual  working  programme  embraces  almost  nothing 
worthy  of  imitation  as  regards  genuine  development  and  training  of 
the  bodily  powers.  Military  drill  has  also  been  introduced,  to  a  limited 
extent,  into  the  public  schools  of  other  American  cities;  notably  in 
those  of  Baltimore,  Md.,  and  Washington,  D.  C. 
628 


PHYSICAL    TRAINING    IN   AMERICAN    COLLEGES.  101 

MILITARY  "TRAINING  ORDAINED  BY  THE  MORRILL  ACT,  1862. 

Congress,  under  the  stress  of  war,  passed,  in  July,  1862,  the  so-called 
Morrill  Act,  granting  thirty  thousand  acres  of  the  public  lands  for  each 
of  its  Senators  and  Eepresentatives  to  every  State  which  should  "pro- 
vide at  least  one  college  where  the  leading  object  shall  be,  without 
excluding  other  scientific  and  classical  studies,  and  including  military 
tactics,  to  teach  such  branches  of  learning  as  are  related  to  agriculture 
and  the  mechanic  arts."  Under  the  provisions  of  this  act,  as  originally 
passed  and  since  amended,  there  have  been  detailed,  as  we  are  informed 
by  the  Adjutant-General  of  the  army,  one  hundred  and  forty-two  dif- 
ferent officers  of  the  army  for  the  purpose  of  teaching  military  tactics 
and  science.  The  following  extracts  and  tables  are  taken  from  the  Ee- 
port  of  the  Adjutant-General,  published  October  30, 1883: 

ARMY   OFFICERS   AS   MILITARY  INSTRUCTORS  AT  COLLEGES. 

The  tables  subjoined  exhibit  the  apportionment  of  details,  corrected  to  October  1, 
1883,  and  the  data  contained  in  the  reports  of  the  several  officers  performing  the 
duties  of  professors  of  tactics  and  military  science. 

The  law  authorizing  the  detail  of  officers  of  the  army  at  a  limited  number  of  col- 
leges and  universities  evidently  contemplated  that  the  services  of  the  military  pro- 
fessors would  be  the  means  of  securing  a  number  of  youths  well  instructed  in  mili- 
tary knowledge,  who  when  occasion  required  could  efficiently  exercise  command  in 
the  militia  of  their  respective  States.  A  better  plan  could  scarcely  have  been  devised, 
and,  carried  out  faithfully,  will  prove  a  powerful  factor  in  insuring  the  thorough 
efficiency  of  that  branch  of  the  military  service. 

Section  1225  of  the  Revised  Statutes  empowers  the  President,  upon  the  application 
of  a  college  or  university  having  capacity  to  educate  at  the  same  time  not  less  than 
150  male  students,  to  detail  an  officer  of  the  army  to  act  as  president,  superintendent, 
or  professor  thereof.  In  establishing  the  minimum  number  of  students  that  could  be 
educated  at  a  college  or  university,  the  law  no  doubt  contemplated  that  not  only  such 
institutions  should  have  capacity  for  educating  a  certain  number  of  youths,  but  that 
at  least  the  minimum  number  prescribed  be  actually  under  instruction.  This  point 
the  War  Department  has  no  means  of  verifying  except  from  the  reports  required  of 
the  military  professor ;  and  a  glance  at  the  second  table  submitted  shows  that  a  mi- 
nority of  the  colleges  or  universities  named  therein  actually  educate  150  students. 
It  is  earnestly  recommended  that,  if  necessary  to  prevent  cavil,  the  law  be  amended 
so  as  to  require  applications  for  the  detail  of  a  military  professor  to  be  accompanied 
by  satisfactory  proof  that  at  least  150  male  pupils  above  the  age  of  fifteen  are  actually 
present  at  the  institution. 

The  colleges  and  universities  at  which  officers  of  the  army  may  be  detailed  should 
be  designated  by  the  governor  of  the  State  in  which  located,  as  being  most  interested 
in  the  progress  of  the  State  and  its  institutions,  and  possessing  greater  means  of  in- 
formation necessary  to  wisely  determine  the  question  of  selection. 

The  section  of  the  Statutes  above  referred  to  prescribes  that  the  officer  detailed 
shall  act  as  "president,  superintendent,  or  professor."  He  should,  therefore,  be  a 
recognized  member  of  the  Faculty,  with  equal  vote,  and  not  simply  a  prefect  of  dis- 
cipline. This  is  of  the*ntmost  importance  to  secure  the  best  results,  as  well  as  to  pre- 
serve the  dignity  of  the  position  of  the  professor  of  tactics  nnd  military  science. 

Drills  should  not  be  held  outside  of  regular  hours,  but  considered  as  part  of  the 
curriculum  of  instruction. 

Finally,  I  am  of  option  that  officers  should  be  forbidden  to  instruct  in  any  other 
branch  of  education,  except  in  so  far  as  the  instruction  has  direct  reference  to  military 
knowledge. 


102 


CIRCULARS    OF    INFORMATION    FOR    1885. 


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Colleges,  &c.,  at  which  detailed. 

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Massachusetts  Agricultural  College,  Amhers 

Union  College,  Schenectady,  N.  T  
Cornell  University,  Ithaca,  N.  T  
Cathedral  School  of  St.  Paul,  Garden  City,  L. 
Pennsylvania  Military  Academy,  Chester  ... 
Allegheny  College,  Meadville,  Pa  
Pennsylvania  State  College,  Center  County  . 
Rutgers  College,  New  Brunswick,  N.  J  

Hampton  Nor.  and  Agric.  Inst.,  Hampton,  V 
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d  Lieut  Edgar  W.  Howe,  Seventeenth  Infan 

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d  Lieut  V.  H.  Bridgman,  Second  Artillery.  . 

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Lieut  W.  S.  Schuyler,  Fifth  Cavalry  
Lieut  C.  A.  L.  Totten,  Fourth  Artillery  
Lient.  W.  P.  Dnvall,  Fifth  Artillery  
Lieut.  J.  W.  Pullman,  Eighth  Cavalry  
d  Lient.  J.  A.  Leyden,  Fourth  Infantry  
d  Lieut.  F.  L.  Dodds,  Ninth  Infantry  

d  Lieut  Geo.  Le  R.  Brown,  Eleventh  Infantr 
d  Lieut.  J.  Batchelder,  Twenty-fourth  Infan 

d  Lieut.  E.  M.  Weaver,  jr.,  Second  Artillery 

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630 


PHYSICAL    TKALNING    IN    AMERICAN    COLLEGES. 


103 


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Agricultural  and  Mechanical  College  of  Tea 

near  Bryan. 

University  of  the  South,  Sewanee,  Tenn'... 
Agric'l  and  Mech'l  College  of  Ky.,  Lexingt 
Ohio  State  University,  Columbus  
Indiana  Asbury  University,  Greencastle.  . 
Michigan  Military  Academy,  Orchard  Lake 
S.  Illinois  Normal  University,  Calbondale. 
Illinois  Industrial  University,  Champaign  . 
University  of  Wisconsin,  Madison  

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104 


CIRCULARS    OF    INFORMATION    FOR    1885. 


TABLE  No.  15. — Data  contained  in  the  reports  of  the  officers  detailed  as  military  instructors 

at  the  institutions  named. 


Universities  and  colleges. 

No.  of  students. 

Total  average  at- 
tendance. 

Average 
attendance. 

Aptitude  of  pupils. 

Interest  mani- 
fested by  Faculty. 

I. 

>>?„ 

9* 

'1* 

> 

6 

Under  15  years 
of  age. 

Artillery  drills. 

Infantry  drills. 

54 
73 
65 

54 

40 
64 
61 

Good  
Excellent  . 
Good  

Very  good. 
Excellent. 
Marked. 

Good. 

Commendable 
and  unremitting. 

Good. 
Satisfactory. 

Very  great. 

Rather  noga- 
tive.t 

Good. 
Satisfactory. 
Good. 

Very  satisfactory. 
Very  good. 

Not  good. 
Not  good. 
Very  satisfactory. 

Fair. 
Good. 

Very  indifferent. 

University  of  Vermont,  Burlington. 

Massachusetts    Agricultural    Col- 
lege, Amherst. 

73 
65 

15 

28 

Cornell  University,  Ithaca,  N.  Y  .  .. 

Cathedral  School  of  St.  Paul.  Gar- 
den City,  Long  Island,  N.  Y. 

Pennsylvania  Military  Academy, 
Chester. 

227 

227 

27 

185 

Good  

112 

19 

131 

131 

Very  good 

Pennsylvania  State  College,  Cen- 
ter County. 

Rutgers  College,  New  Brunswick, 
N.  J. 

Hampton    Normal    and   Agricult- 
ural Institute,  Virginia. 

Bingham  School,  Orange  County, 
North  Carolina. 

South  Carolina  Military  Institute, 
Charleston. 

East    Florida    Seminary,    Gaines- 
ville, Fla. 

Agricultural  and  Mechanical  Col- 
lege of  Mississippi,  Starkville. 

Agricultural  and  Mechanical  Col- 
lege of  Texas,  near  Bryan. 

University  of  the  South,  Sewanee, 
Tenn. 

Agricultural  and  Mechanical  Col- 
lege of  Kentucky,  Lexington. 

Ohio  State  University,  Columbus.  .. 

Indiana  Asbnry  University,  Green- 
castle. 

Michigan  Military  Academy,  Or- 
chard Lake. 

Southern  Illinois  Normal  Univer- 
sity, Carbon  dale,  111. 

Illinois      Industrial     University, 
Champaign. 

University  of  Wisconsin,  Madison. 
University  of  Missouri,  'Columbia.  . 

Kansas  State  Agricultural  College, 
Manhattan. 

Iowa  State  University,  Iowa  City.. 

Cornell   College,    Mount   Vernon, 
Iowa. 

126 
310 

126 

35 
170 

Good  
Very  good 

33 

343 

42 

51 
185 
229 
104 
143 

280 
280 

78 
64 
214 

27 
6 
5 
22 
20 

(*) 
30 

16 

78 
191 
234 
126 
163 

280 
310 

94 

64 
1 
214 

27 
(*) 
16 
20 

48 
(") 

Good  
Good  
Good  

Fair 

51 
119 

150 
117 

64 
58 
70 

Good  
Fair  

42 
117 

45 
17 
65 

Good  
Not  good.. 
Very  good 
Good  

1 

400 
117 

151 

25 
2 

425 
119 

151 

14 
22 

31 
20 

102 

Good  
Good  

Average  .  . 

. 

*  Not  stated. 

t  Great  interest  shown  and  much  assistance  given  in  military  discipline;  found  essential  to  control 
of  pupils. 

632 


PHYSICAL    TRAINING    IN    AMERICAN    COLLEGES.  105 

Though  theUeport  of  the  Commissioner  of  Education  does  not  group 
military  schools  by  themselves,  an  examination  of  his  Report  for  1882-'83 
shows  that  there  were  at  least  thirty  institutions,  other  than  those  men- 
tioned in  the  above  list,  in  which  military  drill  and  discipline  formed 
an  essential  feature. 

During  the  year  ending  July  1,  1884,  there  were  thirty-three  officers 
of  the  army  on  duty  at  colleges,  universities,  and  schools  of  superior 
instruction  for  young  men. 

633 


106  CIRCULARS    OF    INFORMATION   FOR    1886. 


ATHLETIC  SPORTS  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

THE  PRESENT  CONTRASTED  WITH  THE  PAST. 

The  griin  and  uujoyous  ideals  of  the  generations  that  conquered  the 
wilderness  and  laid  the  foundation  of  the  Republic  have  ceased  to  actu- 
ate the  mass  of  the  community,  if  we  may  judge  from  the  practices 
which  now  obtain  all  over  the  country  with  regard  to  recreation  and 
amusements. 

The  value  of  play  is  a  favored  theme  with  writers  on  hygiene  and 
education.  The  ardor  and  activity  displayed  by  the  undergraduate 
world  in  games  and  exercises  once  frowned  upon  by  Faculties  and 
boards  of  trust  because  of  their  "  vain,  idle,  and  flesh-pleasing  "  qual- 
ities, have  become  so  great  that  it  is  the  fashion  in  certain  quarters  to 
speak  of  many  colleges  as  if  they  were  schools  for  ball  players,  oarsmen, 
and  athletes.  There  would  be  more  point  to  such  satire  if  the  interest 
in  athletics,  which  seems  to  strengthen  year  by  year,  were  confined  to  the 
student  class,  instead  of  pervading  the  community  as  a  whole.  It  is  too 
often  overlooked  that  the  growth  of  college  athletics  has  been  stimulated 
and  shaped  by  forces  whose  effects  are  equally,  if  not  more  strongly, 
marked  on  the  non-scholastic  classes  of  our  population.  Exhibitions 
and  contests  of  every  description  which  would  not  have  been  licensed 
or  tolerated,  much  less  pecuniarily  supported,  thirty  years  ago,  now 
yield  quick  and  large  returns  in  popularity  and  cash  to  their  promoters. 
Never,  before  the  War  and  the  profound  changes  that  it  has  wrought 
upon  the  American  mind  and  manners,  would  it  have  been  possible  for 
a  single  college  class,  or  even  a  single  college,  to  have  raised  $5,000  in 
one  year  for  the  maintenance  of  its  representative  athletes.  Such  a 
draft  upon  the  imagination,  as  well  as  upon  the  pockets  of  the  college 
public,  would  inevitably  have  gone  to  protest,  and  for  precisely  the 
same  reasons  that  would  have  entailed  disfavor  and  bankruptcy  upon 
almost  any  of  the  professional  athletic  organizations  which  now  nourish 
so  on  every  hand  that  simply  to  name  and  classify  them  would  prove 
wearisome. 

ATHLETICS  STIMULATED  BY  THE  WAR. 

The  disbanded  armies  of  the  Republic  furnished  a  large  contingent  of 
students  who  had  been  subjected  to  strenuous  physical  training,  to  the 
preparatory  schools  and  colleges  during  the  decade  succeeding  the  war. 
The  influence  exerted  by  this  contingent  in  reviving  and  developing 
the  interest  in  physical  culture,  whose  beginnings  in  the  fifties  and  early 
sixties  we  have  already  noted,  has  been,  perhaps,  even  more  potent  in 
634 


PHYSICAL  .TRAINING    IN   AMERICAN    COLLEGES.  107 

the  department  of  athletics  than  in  those  of  gymnastics  and  military 
drill.  The  history  of  athletics  in  America  has  not  yet  been  written, 
and  it  is  not  our  purpose  to  attempt  it  here ;  but  it  would  be  a  grave 
omission  in  a  survey  of  physical  training  in  American  colleges  and 
universities  not  to  consider  the  salient  features  and  tendencies  of  col- 
lege athletics. 

COLLEGE  ATHLETICS. 

The  growth  of  college  athletics  within  very  recent  years  has  led  to  a 
very  general  and  somewhat  heated  discussion  regarding  them.  In  the 
last  year  (1884),  especially,  the  question  of  their  regulation  has  become 
a  burning  one  with  more  than  one  Faculty.  That  the  question  should 
have  assumed  its  present  proportions  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  ath- 
letic interest  has  been  developed  and  organized  chiefly  through  the 
efforts  of  the  students  themselves,  and  in  accordance  with  their  own 
notions  of  what  is  fitting  and  desirable.  The  general  weakening, 
amounting  sometimes  to  absolute  break-down,  of  paternal  government 
in  our  colleges,  serves  to  complicate  the  difficulties  in  those  institutions 
where  the  governing  boards  find  themselves  suddenly  called  upon  to  reg- 
ulate abuses  whose  development  they  have  been  too  short  sighted  to 
prevent. 

COLLEGE  ATHLETIC  ORGANIZATIONS. 

Athletics  have  been  carried  to  a  higher  degree  of  development  and 
specialization  at  Yale,  Harvard,  and  Princeton,  than  at  any  other  col- 
leges in  the  country.  The  accompanying  statement  (Table  No.  16)  has 
been  prepared  from  authoritative  returns  made  to  the  compiler  of  this 
Beport.  It  is  intended  to  set  forth  the  status  of  the  athletic  interest 
in  the  colleges  named  during  the  year  1882-'83.  It  is  followed  by 
a  summary  statement  (Table  ~No.  17),  which  indicates  in  a  measure  the 
number  and  activity  of  the  athletic  organizations  maintained  by  the 
students  of  seven  less  prominent  colleges.  It  will  be  noticed  that  these 
are  chiefly  eastern  colleges.  Neither  the  general  nor  college  public  at 
the  South  manifests  much  interest  in  athletics  or  gymnastics.  The  best 
gymnasium  building  in  the  South  is  at  Vauderbilt  University,  Nashville, 
Tenn.,  and  a  languid  interest  in  athletics,  more  particularly  in  boating, 
exists  at  the  University  of  Virginia.  Military  drill  is  in  vogue  in  many 
places  in  the  South,  but  athletic  organizations  comparable  with  those 
below  noted  do  not  exist.  It  may  be  said,  in  general,  concerning  western 
colleges,  that  physical  education,  both  on  its  formal  or  gymnastic  side 
and  on  its  recreative  or  athletic  side,  is  still  in  its  embryonic  stage. 

635 


108 


CIRCULARS    OF    INFORMATION   FOR    1885. 


TABLE  No.  Iti. — Statement  concerning  the  athletic  organi- 


Names  of  student  organizations  for 
athletic  sports,  in  1882-'83— 

Tear  it 
was  estab- 
lished. 

Number  of 
members 
in  1882-'83. 

Nature  and 
value  of 
property 
owned. 

Cost  of 
mainte- 
nance in 
1882-'83. 

Amount  of 
funds  raised. 
1  Earnings. 
2  Subscrip- 
tions, ice. 

At  Yale  College,  Keiv  Haven,  Conn., 
with  1,080  students. 

18C5 

1  000 

$6  863  38 

i$5  457  15 

1852 

1  000 

a  $16  000 

7  348  86 

2  1,797  00 
11  322  11 

Foot-ball  clnb  

1872 

1,000 

65,000 

2  689  80 

2  5,  926  87 
11,329  65 

1882 

1  000 

574  00 

2382  00 
'225  05 

Athletic  association  

1876 

1  000 

400  00 

2  349  95 

1882 

1  000 

25  00 

1879 

22 

6700 

Bicycle  club  

1883 

29 

Hare-and-honiids  club  

1882 

56 

el,  258  25 

Yacht  club  

1882 

43 

Totals  

17,  901  04 

18,  048  03 

Balance  

146  99 

At  Harvard  University,  Cambridge, 
Mass.,  with  1,428  students. 

1865 

"Whole 

4  500  00 

'2,600  00 

1866 

university. 
400 

bats,  balls. 
d3  500 

5  000  00 

2  1,900  00 
e'2,  764  00 

1873 

"Whole 

64,500 

3,  655  62 

2  3,  342  00 
^,050  00 

1878 

university. 
30  players. 

350  00 

2  857  00 
'175  00 

1874 

775 

322 

1,653  00 

2  175  00 
1  1,025  00 

1880 

2  2,  775  00 

1879  or  1880 

91 

150  62 

1  150  62 

60 

233  20 

2  233  20 

1883 

12 

1883 

60 

Totals                      

15,  542  44 

18,  046  82 

2,  504  38 

At  Princeton  College,  Princeton,  N.  J., 
with  500  students. 

f    ">*'       1 

•§8 

o  a 

a  3,  500 

1,  200  00 

2  1,200  00 

II 

4     J3*a     .       > 

6  1,  500 

1,  975  00 

'2,045  94 

*  3  S 

o  o  2 

322  11 

'130  52 

Athletic  association  

1870 

"^^•S 

P* 

755  06 

2  101  00 
'816  32 

Totals              ..                        .     .. 

4,252  17 

4,  293  78 

41  61 

a  Boat  house. 


6  Boats,  &c. 


o  Balance  from  previous  year. 


636 


PHYSICAL    TRAINING    IN    AMERICAN    COLLEGES. 
zations  at  Yale,  Harvard,  <  nd  Princeton  in  1882-'83. 


Times 
represented 
in  contests 
in  town  in 
1882-83. 

Times 
represented 
in  contests 
out  of 
town  in 
1882-'83. 

Number  of 
contewts 
won  l..y 
them. 

Number  of 
contests 
lost  by 
them. 

'    .                         Remarks. 

18 

14 
1 
3 

20 

12 

1 

Hamilton  park,  valued  at  $80,000,  was  rented  for 
matches  and  practice  purposes  at  a  rental  amount- 
ing to  one-quarter  of  gross  gate  receipts.  The 
Yale  Field  Corporation  now  owns  twenty-nine 
acres  of  land  inclosed  and  fitted  for  field  and  track 
athletics.  The  names  of  the  colleges  whose 
athletes  contested  with  those  of  Yale  iu  champion- 
ship matches  in  1882-'S3  are  Amhcrst,  Brown, 
Harvard,  and  Princeton.  (This  list  is  incomplete.) 
In  the  six  years  ending  1882-'  83  the  Yalo  foot-ball 
team  did  not  suffer  a  defeat,  and  the  base-ball  club 
held  the  college  championship  for  five  years  of  the 
six,  i.  e.,  during  the  entire  period  of  its  belonging 

3 

0 

. 

to  the  American  Base-Ball  Association. 

The  colleges  represented  in  athletic  contests  with 
Harvard  in  1882-'83  were  Amherst,  Bowdoin, 
Brown,  Dartmouth,  Columbia,  Haverford,  McGill 
University  (of  Montreal),  Massachusetts  Institute 
of  Technology,  University  of  Now  York,  Prince- 
ton, Trinity.  Wesleyan  University,  Williams,  and 
Yale.  The  boat  club  pay's  an  annual  rental  of  $800 
for  the  boat-house,  which  belongs  to  the  univer- 
sity. 

Princeton's  contestants  were  chiefly  drawn  from  the 
following  named  institutions:  Amhorst,  Brown, 
Columbia,  Cornell,  Harvard,  University  of  New 
York,  University  of  Pennsylvania,  Rutgers,  and 
Yale.  The  athletic  association  pays  a  nominal 
rent  for  its  grounds,  which  include,  in  ten  acres, 
a  foot-ball  field,  a  base-ball  field,  a  quarter-mile 
running  track,  five  dressing  rooms,  and  two  grand 
stands. 

« 

18 

11 
3 

3 
1 

14 
3 
8 
3 

15 

7 
2 
3 

1 

2 

4 

3  and  1  draw 

18 

7 
5 

5 
4 

1 

16 
2 

8 
4 

9 
3 

1 
3 

4 
3 

3 

d  Small  house  at  New  London. 


e  By  theatricals  for  the  club . 


637 


110 


CIRCULARS    OF   INFORMATION    FOR   1885. 


TABLE  No.  17. — Summary  statement  concerning  athletic  organizations  at  Amherst,  Bowdoin, 


% 

List  of  student  organizations  for  ath- 
letic sports,  in  1881-'83— 

! 

3 

! 

t* 

Number  of  members 
in  1882-'83. 

°£. 

w   • 

iS 

etS 

3  SjS 

cj  &*> 
ft 

Cost  of  maintenance  in 
1882-'83. 

Funds  raised  among 
studentH. 

At  Amherst  College,  Mata.,  with  352 
students. 

Base-ball  club     -  .......  

Foot-ball  team  

At  Bowdoin  College,  Brunswick,  Me., 
with  215  students. 

1871 

73 

$50  00 

$79  00 

1868 

57 

&c.,  $800. 

430  00 

211  00 

1874 

98 

30  00 

1883 

50 

30  00 

At  University  of  California,  Berkeley, 
Cal.,  with  143  male  students. 

F.U.  Base-Ball  Club  

9 

TT.  C.  Foot-Ball  Club  

1882 

15 

At  Columbia  College,  New  York  City, 
with  1,522  students. 

Rents  a  $6  000  boat-house  .  . 

4  500  00 

1873 

95 

400  00 

400  00 

1880 

30 

Cricket  club  

33 

Tennis  club  

1883 

20 

A  t  Dartmouth  College,  Hanover,  N.  H., 
with  329  students. 

Base-ball  association  

1860 

339 

Uniforms,  &c.  $250  

832  75 

755  25 

1881 

339 

175  50 

175  50 

Athletic  association  

1875 

339 

At  Rutgers  College,  New  Brunswick, 
N.  J.,  with  129  students. 

Boating  association  

1871 

31 

Boat-house  $1  500  ;  carried 

Base-ball  association  

away  by  freshet  of  1882. 

Foot-ball  association  

* 

Tennis  association  

At  Wesley  an  University,  Middletown, 
Conn.,  with  176  male  students. 

Foot-ball  association  

1881 

Uniforms,  &c.  $130  

261  30 

219  50 

Rowing  association  

60 

Boats    &c.    $1  OCO  ;    boat- 

805  68 

360  00 

house  rented  for  $150. 

638 


PHYSICAL    TRAINING    IN   AMERICAN    COLLEGES. 


Ill 


Columbia,  Dartmouth,  Rutgers,  University  of  California,  and  Wesley  an  University. 


Funds  raised  among 
outsiders. 

Times  represented  in 
contests,  in  1882-'83, 
in  town. 

Times  represented  in 
contests,  in  1882-'83, 
out  of  town. 

Number  of  contests 
won  by  them. 

Number  of  contests 
lost  by  them. 

* 

Remarks. 

• 

7 

8 

6 

9 

Faculty  make  money  contributions.      Men  in 

teams  are  excused  from  certain  exercises  in  the 

sionally  employed. 

1 

$210  00 
30  00 

5 

1 

3 

4 

4 

bers  of  teams  are  excused  from  certain  recita- 
tions. 

2 

1 

2 

1 

5 

4 

1 

Class  nines  cost  $20  for  maintenance,  and  class 

4 

4 

foot-ball  teams,  $25. 

6 

6 

6 

6 

3 

7 

1 

9 

20 

5 

15 

2 

(a) 

i 

77  50 

7 
1 

5 
1 

9 
1 

3 
1 

There  were  also  tennis,  bicycle,  and  hare-9.nd- 
honnds  clubs  established  in*1881.    The  nine  has 

The  authorities  do  not  interfere  with  athletics. 

12 

8 

11 

9 

except  that  each  man  on  the  "  'varsity  nine  and 
eleven  is  required  to  file  a  certificate  to  the  ei- 

7 

3 

G 

4 

him  to  play." 

98  00 
350  00 

1 
1 

3 
1 

3 

1 
1 

Crews  and  teams  have  been  excused  from  college 
exercises,  to  some  extent,  for  inter-collegiate 

professional  trainer.     A  gymnastic  exhibition 
has  usually  been  given  during  commencement 
week.    The  authorities  have  not  provided  for 
any  systematic  instruction  or  drill  in  gymnas- 
tics or  athletics. 

aDrawn  games. 


639 


112  CIECULAES    OF    INFORMATION   FOR   1885. 

CONCERNING  PLAY  GROUNDS. 
GENERAL  FACILITIES. 

At  most  country  colleges  ample  facilities  in  the  way  of  grounds  are 
furnished  for  the  playing  of  Jbase  ball,  foot  ball,  and  tennis.  The  play- 
ing fields  are  usually  within  the  college  precincts.  Since  track  ath- 
letics, i.  e.)  walking,  jumping,  sprint  and  hurdle  races,  have  become 
popular,  very  considerable  sums  have  been  spent  on  the  grading  and 
on  the  improvement  of  athletic  fields,  in  the  way  of  providing  stands 
for  spectators,  dressing  rooms  for  the  contestants,  and  "  cinder  tracks  " 
for  pedestrian  purposes.  Haverford  College  has  a  fine  cricket  field; 
Lehigh  University  has  an  inclosure  containing  a  grand  stand,  dressing 
rooms,  and  a  quarter-mile  cinder  path,  together  with  fields  for  ball  and 
lawn  tennis;  the  University  of  Pennsylvania,  in  Philadelphia,  has  re- 
cently furnished  a  well-appointed  athletic  field ;  and  the  Johns  Hopkins 
University,  in  Baltimore,  has  one  nearly  completed. 

HARVARD'S  PLAYING  FIELDS. 

The  grounds  devoted  to  field  sports  at  Harvard  belong  to  the  univer- 
sity, and  are  well  known  among  collegians  as  Holmes  Field  and  Jarvis 
Field.  They  are  adjacent  to  the  Hemenway  Gymnasium,  and  together 
embrace  not  far  frotn  ten  acres  of  level  land.  Holmes  Field  was  put  in 
order  in  1883->84  at  an  expense  of  nearly  $6,000,  toward  which  the 
university  contributed  $2,000,  the  remainder  being  raised  by  subscrip- 
tion. The  following  statement,  printed  in  the  Harvard  Advocate,  Jan- 
uary 4,  1884,  is  given  for  the  purpose  of  affording  information  to  in- 
stitutions that  may  hereafter  find  it  necessary  to  improve  their  play 
grounds : 

RECEIPTS. 

From  subscriptions $3,814  00 

From  Harvard  University 2, 000  00 

5,814  00 
EXPENDITURES. 

For  grading  field,  and  making  and  furnishing  material  for  track,  etc.,  as 

specified  in  agreement  of  July,  1883 $4, 541  00 

For6M.  feet  kyanized  spruce,  at  $23 : 138  00 

For  grass  seed 152  50 

For  manure 195  00 

For  teaming  lumber ^ 14  00 

For  watering  track 4  00 

For  spreading  and  spading  manure 112  50 

For  carpentering  and  other  work 14  00 

For  sawing  spruce  stakes 4  00 

For  52  loads  of  coal  ashes,  at  10  cents 5  20 

For  use  of  horses  and  carts  . .  96  50 


Carried  forward 5,276  70 

640 


PHYSICAL    TRAINING   IN   AMERICAN    COLLEGES.  113 

Brought  forward $5,276  70 

For  services 106  75 

For  screening  cinders,  etc 100  00 

For  14G  loads  ashes,  at  15  cents 21  90 

5,505  35 
Balance  in  bank. .  30«  65 


5,814  00 

To  the  balance  in  the  bank  must  be  added  $180,  which  is  due  the  athletic  associ- 
ation from  the  sale  of  cinders  and  gravel,  and  some  money  from  subscriptions,  which 
has  not  as  yet  been  deposited. 

THE   YALE   ATHLETIC  FIELD. 

As  showing  what  undergraduate  zeal  and  alumni  aid,  when  combined, 
can  accomplish  toward  promoting  athletic  interests,  the  following  con- 
densed abstract  of  the  report  of  the  Yale  Field  Corporation  is  given : 

For  many  years  Yale  men  have  known  that  their  college  was  one  of  the  few  which 
made  no  provision  whatever  for  the  outdoor  sports  of  its  students.  Though  situated 
near  the  center  of  a  rapidly  growing  city,  it  relied  entirely  on  such  arrangements  as 
its  undergraduates  could  make  from  year  to  year. 

In  the  spring  of  1880  a  movement  was  started  in  the  Junior  class  which  led  to  a 
university  meeting,  at  which  a  committee  of  students  was  appointed  to  find  out 
whether  a  suitable  field  for  college  sports  could  be  purchased,  and,  if  so,  whether  it 
was  probable  that  money  could  be  raised  to  pay  for  it.  The  committee  reported 
favorably  on  both  points,  and  was  authorized  to  take  the  necessary  steps  to  secure  a 
field.  Two  months  later  this  committee  associated  with  itself  the  "Advisory  Com- 
mittee on  Athletics,"  then  composed  of  four  graduates.  During  the  following  year 
the  sum  of  $15,000  was  collected  and  twenty-nine  acres  of  land  were  purchased. 

On  the  27th  of  May,  1832,  the  "Committee  on  Purchase  of  Yale  Athletic  Grounds" 
was  merged  in  the  "  Yale  Field  Corporation,"  which  was  formed  to  "  manage  grounds 
to  be  used  by  persons  connected,  or  who  shall  have  been  connected,  with  Yale  Col- 
lege, for  athletic  games,  exercises,  and  recreations  in  said  college,  and  to  take,  buy, 
own,  and  hold  property,  real  and  personal,  necessary  or  proper  therefor." 

The  members  of  this  corporation  are  all  persons  who  prior  to  its  incorporation  had 
paid  $5  to  the  treasurer  of  the  field  fund,  and  all  students  and  instructors  who  since 
that  time  have  paid  a  like  sum  to  the  treasurer  of  the  corporation.  The  management 
is  vested  in  a  board  of  twelve  directors,  of  whom  four  are  undergraduate  officers  of  col- 
lege athletic  associations,  six  are  graduates,  and  two  are  instructors  in  the  university. 

On  the  1st  of  June,  1884,  the  field  was  thrown  open  to  the  college,  and  during  the 
fall  it  has  been  used  for  foot  ball  and  lacrosse,  and  has  given  general  satisfaction.  Ifc 
lies  on  the  south  side  of  Derby  avenue,  due  west  of  the  campus,  and  distant  one  and 
one-half  miles. 

Some  have  objected  to  this  field  on  account  of  its  distance  from  the  college.  The 
reason  why  it  was  selected  was  because  there  was  no  suitable  field  nearer  which 
could  be  bought.  Every  available  spot  within  two  miles  of  the  college  was  carefully 
examined  and  considered,  and  those  who  know  what  there  was  to  choose  from  have 
never  questioned  the  wisdom  of  the  choice.  In  point  of  fact,  tbe  new  field  is  one 
sixth  of  a  mile  nearer  South  College  than  the  grounds  heretofore  used,  and  the  direc- 
tors think  that  tbe  Chapel  street  cars  will  soon  run  to  the  entrance.  The  location 
adopted,  moreover,  is  in  less  danger  from  the  opening  of  new  streets  than  any  other 
site  available. 

The  preparation  of  the  field  for  use  has  gone  forward  rather  slowly.  The  reasons 
are  numerous.  It  has  been  hard  to  raise  money,  and  the  expenses  have  been  heavy. 

5068— No.  5 8  641 


114  CIRCULARS    OF    INFORMATION    FOR    1885. 

Many  questions  have  arisen  concerning  the  treatment  of  soil,  raising  of  turf,  build- 
ing of  the  track,  etc.,  about  which  it  was  extremely  difficult  to  procure  trustworthy 
advice,  and  to  proceed  without  it  was  simple  experiment.  The  personnel  of  the  com- 
mittee and  board  of  directors  has  undergone  many  changes.  The  members  were  from 
different  cities,  and  those  who  are  graduates  have  been  so  closely  occupied  with  their 
own  affairs  that  the  time  required  for  this  work  has  not  been  easily  spared. 

Soon  affer  the  land  was  purchased  the  fences,  trees,  and  buildings  were  cleared 
away,  and  about  fourteen  acres  were  graded  for  use.  The  soil  was  then  enriched  by 
plowing  in  two  crops  of  grass  and  the  addition  of  large  quantities  of  wood  ashes  with 
other  fertilizers;  and  by  seeding  and  sodding,  a  strong  turf  was  secured  over  an  area 
about  equal  to  that  of  the  New  Haven  Green.  The  plan  for  lay-out  submitted  by  Mr. 
Frederick  Law  Olmsted  was  adopted,  with  some  modifications  suggested  by  those 
practically  acquainted  with  college  athletics.  At  the  entrance  a  roadway  200  feet 
long  by  30  feet  wide,  flanked  by  a  stone  wall,  was  constructed,  and  drives  four-fifths 
of  a  mile  in  length  have  been  laid  out  within  the  grounds.  The  running  track  lies 
at  the  south-east  corner  of  the  field,  and  was  built  under  the  superintendence  of  Mr. 
Robert  Rogers.  It  is  a  quarter  of  a  mile  long,  and  the  straight-away  length  of  its 
sides  is  372.5  feet,  while  the  width  is  15  feet  in  the  narrowest  and  20  feet  in  the  widest 
part.  No  pains  were  spared  in  its  construction  or  in  procuring  the  right  kind  of 
cinders  and  other  materials  of  which  it  is  made.  The  grounds  are  inclosed  on  three 
sides  by  2,762  feet  of  fence,  the  fourth  side  being  bounded  by  the  river.  The  water 
supply  is  furnished  by  a  good  well  and  by  1,580  feet  of  pipe,  which  extend  through 
the  grounds  from  the  city  main.  The  grand  stand,  situated  at  the  north  side  of  the 
field  and  overlooking  the  principal  ball  ground,  is  the  gift  of  Mr.  William  H.  Crocker, 
'82  S.  It  seats  850  persons,  and  will  afford  a  perfect  view  of  the  intercollegiate  games 
to  be  played  directly  in  front  of  it.  The  field  is  now  ready  for  base  ball,  foot  ball, 
track  athletics,  lacrosse,  and  tennis,  and  a  tract  of  about  four  acres  has  been  set  aside 
for  cricket,  though  it  is  not  yet  graded.  When  completed  it  will  afford  room  and  op- 
portunity to  all  students  for  all  games  which  they  wish  to  play. 

The  plans  adopted  for  further  improvement  include  the  grading  of  the  cricket  field, 
the  planting  of  a  hedge  just  inside  the  fence,  the  erection  of  two  club  houses,  con- 
taining baths  and  dressing  rooms  for  those  who  take  part  in  the  games,  and  some 
minor  matters  which  will  add  to  the  beauty  and  convenience  of  the  grounds. 

The  field  lies  on  the  farther  bank  of  West  River,  on  a  bluff  that  rises  forty  feet  above 
the  water  and  extends  westward.  The  side  and  eastern  edge  of  this  bluff  are  cov- 
ered by  a  growth  of  chestnut,  oak,  and  hickory,  and  near  the  entrance  gate  are  two 
large  pines.  Through  the  grove  one  sees  the  city,  and  toward  the  south  catches 
glimpses  of  the  harbor  and  sound.  The  Edgewood  hills  rise  on  the  side  opposite  the 
river,  and  West,  Pine,  and  East  Rocks,  and  farther  away  Mount  Carmel,  may  be 
Been  to  the  northward  and  north-east.  With  these  natural  advantages  the  field  can 
be  made  a  pleasant  place  for  all  friends  of  the  college  to  visit.  *  *  » 

The  following  financial  statement  is  submitted  by  the  treasurer: 

RECEIPTS. 

Subscriptions  paid $32,209  35 

Amount  borrowed 20,685  7B 

Proceeds  of  buildings  sold,  rents,  etc ,, 289  12 


53, 184  25 

DISBURSEMENTS. 

For  land -' $21,394  50 

For  track 3,330  02 

For  grand  stand 6,658  67 

Carried  forward 31,383  19 

642 


PHYSICAL    TRAINING    IN   AMERICAN   COLLEGES.  115 

Brought  forward  .................................................  $31,383  19 

For  grading  and  preparation  of  field  ...............  .....................     13,558  41 

For  interest  and  discount  ..............................................       1,  908  62 

For  expense  account  : 

Superintendence  .........................................  $1,893  62 

Collection  expenses,  travel,  etc  .................  .....  ......     2,  299  66 

Fence  ...................................................        907  13 

Water  pipes  .............................................         673  88 

Seed  ....................................................        55975 

-      6,  334  03 


53,  184  25 

The  above  statement  shows  that  the  corporation  is  in  debt  $20,685.78.  It  was 
thought  best  to  borrow  money  to  prepare  the  field  for  use  rather  than  delay  the  work 
longer.  The  estimated  expense  of  grading  the  remainder  of  the  ground,  erecting 
cottages,  planting  a  hedge,  and  carrying  out  the  rest  of  the  plan  already  adopted, 
is,  in  round  numbers,  $10,000.  At  least  $30,000  is  therefore  needed  at  once. 

It  is  estimated  that  the  cost  of  employing  a  superintendent  and  keeping  the  field 
in  order  after  it  is  finished  will  be  fully  met  by  the  money  received  for  admission  to 
the  games.  When  the  students  use  their  own  field  the  expenses  of  maintaining  ath- 
letics can  be  materially  reduced. 

Any  persons  disposed  to  aid  the  corporation  in  meeting  its  obligations  and  continu- 
ing the  work  are  earnestly  requested  to  communicate  with  the  treasurer,  Mr.  Henry 
B.  Sargent,  New  Haven,  Conn. 

By  order  of  the  board  of  directors. 

MASON  YOUNG,  President. 

HENRY  C.  WHITE,  Secretary. 
NEW  HAVEN,  Conn.,  December  20,  1884. 

During  1883-'84,  Mr.  W.  C.  Camp,  who  had  distinguished  himself  as 
an  accomplished  athlete  and  as  a  scholar  during  his  course  at  Yale, 
was  engaged  by  the  graduate  advisory  committee  on  athletics  and  the 
athletic  association  of  the  undergraduates  to  supervise  the  field  sports 
of  Yale  students,  at  a  salary  of  $1,200.  Mr.  Camp's  assiduous  and  in- 
telligent coaching  and  training  contributed  much  to  Yale's  athletic 
triumphs  in  1883-'84,  when  the  Yale  crew,  foot-ball  team,  and  ball  nine 
each  gained  the  championship  prizes  of  the  year. 

THE  YALE  SYSTEM  OF  ATHLETICS. 

Physical  training  at  Yale  means  athletics,  toward  the  regulation  of 
which  the  Faculty  exercise  a  minimum  of  influence.  It  js  rather  singu- 
lar that  Yale,  which  has  been  so  averse  to  anything  approaching  an 
elective  system  of  studies,  should  have  developed  a  most  unrestricted 
elective  system  of  athletics. 

The  fairest  and  most  intelligent  paper  elicited  by  the  recent  discus- 
sion of  athleticism  which  has  come  under  our  notice,  is  the  production 
of  an  ardent  friend  and  defender  of  the  Yale  system  of  athletics.  In  it 
the  whole  system  is  so  well  set  forth,  its  advantages  are  so  cogently 
argued,  and  the  attacks  of  its  critics  so  temperately  met,  that  it  seems 
best  to  quote  copiously  from  it.  Its  exposition  of  the  reciprocal  rela- 
tions of  body-  work  and  brain-work  should  be  grasped  by  every  teacher. 

643 


f .     sy 

116  CIRCULARS    OF    INFORMATION    FOR    1885. 

Those  who  may  desire  to  consult  the  paper  as  originally  printed  will 
find  it  published,  in  two  parts,  in  the  Popular  Science  Monthly  for 
.February  and  March,  1884.1 

I.  ADVANTAGES. 

*  *     *     If  we  can  show  that  college  athletics  supply  this  need  [of  exercise]  to 
•quite  a  large  body  of  students,  and  supply  it  regularly  and  systematically,  we  may 
eecure  a  patient  consideration  of  their  good  effects  long  enough  to  add  a  discussion 
of  their  accompanying  evils.     In  this  discussion  we  hope  to  prove  that  the  evils  have 
been  exaggerated ;  that  they  are  not  so  great  as  would  be  the  evils  of  a  college  life 
•without  a  system  of  athletics ;  and,  lastly,  that  such  evils  as  do  inhere  in  the  present 
system  are  capable  of  remedy. 

*  *     *     Though  we  admit  the  truth  of  all  the  wise  sayings  with  regard  to  a  "sane 
mind  in  a  sound  body,"  we  are  yet  too  apt  to  regard  the  sound  body  as  a  mere  acci- 
dent of  inheritance  or  environment.     So  we  read  the  proposition  as  a  hypothetical 
•one,  viz.,  "If  the  body  is  sound  the  mind  will  be  sane."    Few  but  physicians  read  it 
-as  indicating  a  connection  between  body  and  mind,  by  means  of  which  we  can  make, 
or  help  to  make,  a  good  healthy  brain  by  making  a  good  sound  body.     In  the  fact 
that  the  brain  always  seems  to  direct  the  body,  we  are  prone  to  forget  that  the  body 
•carries  the  brain  and  feeds  it  with  its  own  life.     If  the  body  has  good  blood  the  brain 
•will  have  good  blood  also.     If  the  body  does  not  furnish  good  material,  the  brain  will 
•do,  according  to  its  capacity,  poor  work,  or  will  not  work  at  all.     *     »     * 

There  are  two  kinds  of  brain-work, — one  which  we  may  very  properly  call  body 
Tbrain-work,  and  the  other  mind  brain-work.  Most  people,  including  a  great  many 
•educators  of  youth,  consider  mind  brain-work  to  be  the  only  kind  of  brain-work. 
.But  body  brain- work  is  quite  as  essential  to  the  healthy  existence  of  the  brain,  and 
ireally  comes  first  in  the  order  of  brain  growth.  The  child,  too  young  to  know  any- 
thing except  its  bodily  wants,  and  conscious  of  them  only  when  the  denial  of  them 
•causes  pain,  develops  brain  every  time  it  makes  a  will-directed  effort  to  grasp  the 
thing  it  wants.  The  movement  of  its  hand  is  as  necessary  to  the  development  of  its 
^brain  as  the  guidance  and  government  of  the  brain  are  to  the  growth  of  the  hand. 
"What  is  true  of  the  hand  is  true  of  the  other  bodily  organs  whose  motion  is  under 
ifche  control  of  the  will.  They  and  the  brain  are  developed  by  reciprocal  action.  In- 
terfere with  this  body  brain- work  in  childhood,  or  at  any  period  of  growth,  either  by 
repressing  it  or  by  diverting  from  it  too  much  vital  energy  to  mind  brain-work,  such 
as  is  involved  in  the  acquisition  of  knowledge,  and  you  not  only  stunt  the  body,  but 
also  enfeeble  the  brain,  by  depriving  both  of  their  proper  growth.  *  *  * 

Care  to  guard  against  this  interference  is  all  the  more  necessary  in  cases  in  which 
the  brain  is  large  or  sensitive.  Now,  will  any  man  say  that  at  the  time  of  life  when 
.young  men  come  to  our  American  colleges,  when,  in  fact,  all  their  bodily  organs  are 
mpproachiug  maturity,  this  body  brain- work  ought  to  cease,  or  can,  without  danger, 
t)o  neglected  ?  Is  it  not  most  essential  that  at  this  very  period  the  reciprocal  action 
between  body  and  brain  should  be  steadily  maintained,  in  order  that  both  should  be 
able  to  endure  the  strain  put  upon  them  by  the  various  stimulants  of  thought  and 
feeling  to  be  found  in  college  life  ?  The  great  pressure  brought  to,  bear  upon  them  is 
toward  conscious  cerebration.  Acquisitions  of  knowledge,  scholarships,  the  ambi- 
tious desires  of  parents,  and  prizes,  all  incite  them  to  neglect  body  brain- work,  under 
the  mistaken  impression  th'at  time  given  to  that  is  time  lost  to  the  other.  Many  a 
(fine  scholar  has  left  college  with  great  honors  to  experience  iu  his  subsequent  career 
the  serious  results  of  the  mistake  made  in  college,  and  has  discovered,  often  too  late, 
that  a  vigorous  body  to  carry  his  brain  is  more  essential  to  success  in  life  than  a  well- 

1  College  Athletics,  by  Eugene  L.  Richards,  Assistant  Professor  of  Mathematics  in 
Vale  College. 
644 


PHYSICAL    TRAINING   IN    AMERICAN    COLLEGES.  117 

trained  brain  full  of  knowledge  but  lacking  a  strong  body  from  which  to  draw  ita 
nourishment  and  strength. 

Again,  exercise,  to  be  beneficial,  ehould  be  regular  and  systematic.  To  be  most  ben- 
eficial it  should  be  in  the  open  air.  The  oxygenation  of  the  blood  is  not  the  least  im_ 
portant  effect  of  exercise.  In  consequence  of  the  reciprocal  action  of  mind  and  body,, 
to  be  as  beneficial  as  possible  it  should  be  accompanied  by  mental  occupation.  The 
mind  should  be  interested  in  the  exercise  while  the  body  is  engaged.  How  shall  all 
these  requisites  of  the  best  kind  of  exercise  be  secured  ?  First,  a  regularly  set  time  . 
for  exercise ;  next,  a  fixed  amount  of  time  devoted  to  it;  then,  a  place  where  the  lunga 
should  breathe  fresh  air;  and,  lastly,  a  kind  of  exercise  which  should  engage  tho 
mind  as  well  as  the  body.  By  the  present  system  of  college  athletics  these  requisites 
are  met,  if  not  perfectly,  at  least  as  well  as  it  is  possible  for  them  to  be  met . 
*  They  do  furnish  a  mental  stimulus.  They  set  up  an  object  to  be  striven 
for,  and  an  ideal  of  strength  or  skill.  The  object  is  honor — honor  of  no  great  worth, 
perhaps,  but  still  honor,  to  the  student-mind.  In  boating,  the  object  is  a  victory  over 
a  crew  of  a  rival  class  or  a  rival  college.  In  lacrosse,  base  ball,  and  foot  ball,  besides 
working  for  the  ultimate  object  of  the  championship,  the  mind  of  the  player  has 
continual  occupation  in  the  game  itself.  To  secure  a  victory  in  any  of  these  sports,, 
good  brains  in  the  players  contribute  quite  as  much  as  good  muscles.  In  fact,  it  i» 
the  skilled  muscles  rightly  directed  by  good  brains  which  win,  and  not  the  playera 
most  skilled  in  the  use  of  their  muscles.  Mind  as  well  as  body  has  to  be  consideredt 
by  the  successful  captains  in  the  selection  of  their  men.  Then  there  are  minor  con- 
siderations which  keep  students  in  steady  training,  and  help  to  induce  more  men  to 
work  than  finally  appear  in  the  great  contests,  such,  for  instance,  as  the  ambition  to 
secure  an  office  or  position  in  one  of  the  university  organizations,  and  thus  an  honor- 
able standing  as  a  college  man.  *  *  * 

The  following  brief  aciount  of  the  exercise  taken  by  tBe  students  is  offered  in  order 
to  insure  a  better  understanding  of  the  system  of  college  athletics : 

Almost  as  soon  as  the  college  opens  in  the  fall,  the  various  class  nines  begin  their 
games  for  the  college  championship.  At  the  same  time  the  class  crews,  the  foot-ball 
and  lacrosse  teams,  put  their  men  into  training.  This  means  regular  exercise  in  the> 
open  air  from  four  to  six  weeks  for  about  140  men.  Quite  as  many  more  are  bene- 
fited, some  by  actual  participation  in  the  games,  in  order  to  furnish  opponents  to  the> 
teams  in  practice,  and  others  by  training  for  the  athletic  association  contests.  After 
the  class  base-ball  championship  is  decided,  and  the  athletic  association  meeting* 
have  terminated,  fewer  men  exercise.  The  interest  of  the  college  then  centers  in 
the  foot-ball  elevens,  one  selected  from  the  whole  university,  and  the  other  from  the» 
Freshman  classes  of  the  academic  and  scientific  departments.  To  give  these  teams 
practice,  all  the  college  is  urged  to  go  to  the  field  and  play  against  them ;  and  though,, 
of  course,  the  invitation  is  not  accepted  as  extensively  as  it  is  given,  yet  it  does 
induce  quite  a  large  number  of  men  to  exercise.  But  this  is  not  the  only  good  effect 
of  the  existence  of  these  teams.  Catching  the  enthusiasm  of  the  sport,  often  the  men 
of  different  dormitories  and  of  different  eating-clubs  send  out  teams  for  matches^ 
The  foot-ball  season  terminates  at  the  Thanksgiving  recess.  The  two  or  three  weeka 
intervening  between  this  recess  and  the  winter  examinations  see  very  little  exercise* 
taken  by  the  students,  except  by  the  few  who  regularly  use  the  gymnasium.  Imme- 
diately on  the  opening  of  the  winter  term  activity  in  athletics  manifests  itself  again. 
The  captain  of  the  university  crew,  the  captain  of  the  university  base-ball  nine,  the* 
captains  of  the  different  class  crews,  and  the  captain  of  the  Freshman  base-ball  nine,, 
call  for  men  who  wish  to  try  for  positions  on  these  organizations.  The  candidates 
are  put  into  reguUrr  training  in  the  gymnasium  while  the  season  prevents  exercise* 
out  of  doors.  Nearly  a  hundred  men  come  forward,  who  are  actually  in  training  for 
at  least  one  hour  a  day.  They  are  required  to  live  rightly  in  all  respects.  Each 
man  is  bound  to  avoid  excesses  of  all  kinds.  The  force  of  a  public  opinion  created 
by  the  sight  of  these  men  attending  to  their  physical  development,  and  living  ao- 

645 


118  CIRCULARS    OF    INFORMATION   FOR   1885. 

cording  to  Jaws  and  rules,  acts  upon  the  college  world  to  encourage  regularity  of 
life  and  obedience  to  authority.  It  is  a  moral  power  in  the  community.  As  soon  as 
the  season  permits,  the  men  are  sent  out  of  doors.  The  crews  take  their  seats  in  the 
boats.  The  nines  take  their  positions  in  the  field.  The  spring  regatta  terminates 
the  practice  of  the  class  crews,  but,  as  that  event  occurs  about  three  weeks  before 
the  June  examinations,  and  five  weeks  before  the  close  of  the  college  year,  it  does 
not  leave  the  young  men  a  long  time  without  exercise.  The  university,  consolidated, 
and  Freshman  nines,  the  lacrosse  team,  and  the  university  crew  (with  sometimes 
a  second  eight),  continue  their  practice  much  longer,  some  of  them  stopping  work 
only  after  the  close  of  the  college  year. 

Now,  it  may  be  said  that  the  writer  has  only  shown  that  regular  exercise  has  been 
secured  during  a  few  weeks  of  the  first  term  to  140  men  at  the  most,  and  during  the 
whole  winter  term  to  100  men ;  and  in  the  spring  and  summer  to  100  men  part  of  the 
term,  and  to  half  that  number  during  the  whole  of  the  term.  Granted.  But  there 
are  other  organizations  which  induce  men  to  exercise.  The  athletic  association  has 
already  been  mentioned.  This  gives  three  exhibitions;  one  during  the  winter  or 
early  spring  in  the  gymnasium,  and  two  in  the  open  air,  one  in  the  summer  and  one 
in  the  fall.  The  Dunham  Rowing  Club  has  a  membership  of  44  men.  Then  there 
are  canoe  clubs,  tennis  clubs,  and  gun  clubs.  It  would  be  putting  the  estimate  too 
low  to  say  that  at  least  half  of  the  undergraduate  members  of  the  academic  and 
scientific  departments  get  quite  a  regular  amount  of  systematic  out-door  exercise 
from,  or  in  consequence  of,  the  present  system  of  college  athletics.  This  activity, 
too,  has  been  mainly  the  outgrowth  of  the  attention  given  to  boating  and  to  base 
ball.  They  had  the  first  regular  organizations,  and  the  others  have  taken  pattern 
from  them.  It  is  no  argument  against  the  system  that  all  the  members  of  the  uni- 
versity do  not  take  advantage  of  it.  The  need  of  exercise  is  met,  and  opportunities 
for  regular  and  systematic  e%ercise  are  given,  with  inducements  to  take  it,  which  do 
act  upon  at  least  half  of  the  membership  of  the  two  departments  most  in  need  of  it. 
The  system  might  do  more  good  if  time  were  set  apart  by  the  various  Faculties  for 
the  purpose  of  encouraging  exercise,  but  in  considering  the  system  it  must  be  borne 
in  mind  that  it  has  grown  up  in  a  continual  struggle  for  existence;  and,  until  within 
a  few  years,  without  either  help  from  graduates  or  favor  from  the  college  authorities. 

*  *  *  In  addition  to  those  already  mentioned,  we  claim  for  it  the  following  ad- 
rantages : 

(1)  The  college  is  sending  out  a  better  breed  of  men.     College  athletics  send  their 
healthy  influence  into  the  schools,  and  in  them  consequently  increased  attention  is 
given  to  physical  development.    Thus  the  material  coming  from  the  schools  is  im- 
proved.   In  college  this  material  is  better  preserved  and  better  developed  under  the 
present  system  of  athletics.    More  well-trained  minds  in  more  forceful  bodies  are 
graduated  from  college  than  in  former  years.     What  President  Eliot   says  on  this 
subject  is  as  applicable  to  Yale  as  to  Harvard : 

It  is  agreed  on  all  hands  that  the  increased  attention  given  to  physical  exercise 
and  athletic  sports  within  the  past  twenty-five  years  has  been,  on  the  whole,  of 
great  advantage  to  the  university  ;  that  the  average  physique  of  the  mass  of  students 
has  been  sensibly  improved,  the  discipline  of  the  college  been  made  easier  and  more 
effective,  the  work  of  many  zealous  students  been  done  with  greater  safety,  and  the 
ideal  student  been  transformed  from  a  stooping,  weak,  and  sickly  youth,  into  one 
well-formed,  robust,  and  healthy. 

(2)  The  system  of  college  athletics  gives  opportunity  for  the  development  of  certain 
qualities  of  mind  and  character  not  all  provided  for  in  the  college  curriculum,  but 
qualities  nevertheless  quite  as  essential  to  true  success  in  life  as  ripe  scholarship  or 
liter*ary  culture.     Courage,  resolution,  and  perseverance  are  required  in  all  the  men 
who  excel  in  athletic  sports.     The  faculty  for  organization,  executive  power,  the 
qualities  which  enable  men  to  control  and  lead  other  men,  and  again,  those  other 
qualities  by  which  men  yield  faithful  obedience  to  recognized  authority,  are  all 
called  into  action  in  every  boat  race,  in  every  ball  contest,  and  through  all  the  pre- 
646 


PHYSICAL    TRAINING    IN   AMERICAN    COLLEGES.  119 

liminary  training.  In  athletics  the  college  world  is  a  little  republic  of  young  men, 
with  authority  for  government  delegated  to  presidents,  captains,  and  commodores, 
and  loyally  supported  by  the  resources  and  bodies  of  the  governed.  Is  the  system 
not  worth  something  as  a  means  of  preparation  for  the  responsibilities  of  life  in  the 
larger  republic  outside  the  campus  ? 

(3)  The  system  is  conducive  to  the  good  order  of  the  college.     It  conduces  to  good 
order  in  furnishing  occupation  for  the  physically  active.     There  are  men  in  every 
class  who  seem  to  require  some  outlet  for  their  superabundant  animal  life.     Before 
the  day  of  athletics,  such  men  supplied  the  class  bullies  in  fights  between  town  and 
gown,  and  were  busy  at  night  in  gate-stealing  and  in  other  pranks  now  gone  out  of 
fashion.     *     *     *    Any  instructor  who  has  kept  track  of  the  ways  of  college  during 
the  past  fifteen  years  cannpt  fail  to  be  struck  by  the  decreasing  number  of  the  really 
great  disorders,  by  the  mildness  of  those  which  remain,  and  by  the  increasing  regard 
on  the  part  of  the  students  for  college  authority,  college  property,  and  for  the  rights 

of  fellow-students. 

»  #  *  *  *  »  * 

Again,  the  system  conduces  to  good  order  in  its  effects  upon  class-feeling.  It  acts  up- 
on this  class-feeling  in  two  ways :  first,  in  the  contests  between  class  organizations, 
furnishing  a  gafety-valve  for  it ;  and  second,  in  the  university  organizations,  tending 
to  moderate  it.  *  *  *  Since  these  organizations  are  composed  of  men  of  all  classes, 
it  is  impossible  for  a  college  to  be  enthusiastic  for  its  crew,  team,  or  nine,  without' 
a  common  sympathy  binding  all  the  classes  together.  Moreover,  it  is  observable  that 
the  time  of  the  year  when  the  athletic  contests  are  not  absorbing  the  attention  of  the 
college  is  the  very  time  when  the  disorders  between  classes  and  the  persecutions  of 
Freshmen  are  most  prevalent.  *  *  *  Formerly  it  was  the  strong  men  who  incited 
and  took  the  chief  part  in  disorders.  Now  all  their  interests  and  all  their  efforts  are 
against  them. 

(4)  The  system  furnishes  to  instructors  an  opportunity  of  meeting  their  pupils  as 
men  interested  in  a  common  good,  without  the  chilling  reserve  of  the  recitation 
room.     *    •    *    The  college  officer  who  gives  a  little  of  his  time  even  to  the  boys'  play 
soon  finds  his  sympathies  widen,  and,  by  learning  from  actual  observation  how  young 
men  feel  and  think,  becomes  able  to  deal  more  wisely  with  those  under  his  charge, 
from  a  fuller  knowledge  of  them. 

(5)  The  power  of  the  athletic  contests  to  awaken  enthusiasm  ought  not  to  be  held 
of  small  account.     The  tendency  of  academic  life  is  toward  dry  intellectualism. 
*     *    *    It  is  not  too  much  to  say  that  in  many  a  student,  while  passing  from  Fresh- 
man to  the  end  of  Senior  year,  this  spirit  would  die  for  lack  of  culture  were  it  not 
for  athletics.    There  is  training  for  it  in  every  contest  witnessed.     •     •     * 

(6)  The  system  of  athletics,  by  its  intercollegiate  contests,  brings  the  students  into 
a  wider  world.    They  are  no  longer  "home-keeping  youths"  with  "homely  wits." 
They  measure  themselves  by  other  standards  than  those  they  find  in  the  limits  of 

their  own  campus. 

•  **•»•* 

II.   EVILS  AND   THEIR  REMEDIES. 

*  *  *  That  the  present  system  has  evils  is  no  valid  argument  against  it,  unless 
it  can  be  shown  either  that  these  outweigh  the  good,  or  that  some  other  practical 
system  can  be  devised  which  shall  have  all  the  good  with  less  of  the  evil  of  the 
present  system. 

(1)  One  evil  alleged  against  the  present  system  is  the  excessive  amount  of  time  re- 
quired for  exercise  under  it.  It  is  no  doubt  true  that  some  students  do  give  too  much 
time  to  athletics.  Some  students  also  give  too  much  time  to  study;  yet  that  fact  is 
not  brought  forward  as  a  fatal  argument  against  the  college  course  of  study.  Of  the 
two  excesses — excess  of  study  and  excess  of  exercise — the  danger  on  s  pressure  at  pres- 
ent is  toward  excess  of  study.  But,  in  point  of  fact,  this  evil  of  too  much  time  given 

647 


120  CIRCULARS    OF   INFORMATION   FOR   1885. 

to  athletics  has  been  greatly  exaggerated.  The  winter  term  is  not  open  to  the  charge 
of  excessive  athletics.  The  athletes  then  training  do  not  devote  an  average  of  more 
than  an  hour  a  day  to  exercise.  Perhaps  a  few  give  an  hour  and  a  half.  It  would  be 
safe  to  say  that,  counting  all  the  time  consumed,  including  the  time  of  exercise,  the 
time  used  in  going  to  and  from  the  gymnasium,  and  the  time  used  in  dressing  and  un- 
dressing, it  would  not  go  beyond  two  hours  per  day,  and  in  most  cases  would  be  less 
than  that  amount.  So,  to  consider  the  question  of  excessive  time,  we  must  look  at 
the  fall  and  spring  terms.  In  the  fall,  during  days  when  afternoon  recitations  are 
held,  the  class  nines  do  not  spend  more  than  two  hours'  time  all  together,  including 
both  practice  in  the  field  and  the  time  of  going  to  and  from  practice.  The  same  may 
be  said  of  the  foot-ball  and  lacrosse  teams.  On  Wednesday  and  Saturday  afternoons 
the  students  give  from  two  to  three  hours  to  practice.  On  these  afternoons  the  match 
games  occur.  They  are  prohibited  on  other  days,  except  during  examinations,  at 
which  time  they  are  allowed  on  any  day,  provided  no  player  is  thereby  prevented 
from  attending  his  examination.  The  crews,  also,  in  practice  on  the  water  and  in  go- 
ing to  and  from  their  boats,  spend  two  hours  daily.  On  Wednesdays  and  Saturdays 
they  use  more  time,  but  the  practice  is  so  arranged  as  not  to  interfere  with  recitations. 

In  the  summer  the  same  amount  of  time  daily  is  given  to  practice,  except  that 
when  recitations  cease  and  examinations  begin  the  university  and  Freshman  nines  use 
more  time.  Even  then  that  time  will  not  average  more  than  three  hours  per  day. 
When  match  games  are  played  out  of  town,  to  the  time  of  the  game  must  be  added 
the  timo  used  in  travel  to  and  from  the  scene  of  the  match.  In  the  season  of  1882,  of 
the  games  played  during  the  time  when  recitations  or  examinations  were  being  held, 
only  five  were  played  out  of  town  by  the  Yale  University  nine,  though  the  men 
went  out  of  town  once  or  twice  more  but  were  prevented  from  playing  by  the  rain. 
Of  these  five,  three  were  played  in  New  York  City,  which  is  only  a  little  over  two 
hours'  ride  from  New  Haven.  Of  the  remaining  two,  neither  needed  more  than 
thirty-six  hours'  absence  from  town. 

The  university  crew  row  only  one  race  a  year.  The  foot-ball  elevens  and  the 
lacrosse  team  play  a  few  games  out  of  New  Hayen,  but  do  not  use  in  this  way  as 
much  time  as  the  nine. 

(2)  It  is  said  that  the  excitement  attendant  on  these  sports  distracts  from  study. 
It  is  true  that  the  contests  do  furnish  excitement  for  the  students,  but  it  is  excite- 
ment of  a  healthy  kind.     »    *     *    Banish  athletics,  and  you  increase  the  attendance 
at  the  theaters  and  the  saloons,  where  the  temptations  are  greater,  and  the  excite- 
ments less  healthy,  than  those  of  the  ball  field  and  boat  race. 

(3)  There  is  the  evil  of  betting.    This  is  not  an  evil  peculiar  to  athletics.     »     *     • 
Games  and  races  in  colleges  do  not  create  betting.     They  simply  divert  it  from  other 
channels. 

(4 )  Then  there  are  the  disorders  consequent  upon  victories.    These  disorders  are  some- 
times quite  serious,  but  are  by  no  means  so  serious  as  they  are  often  represented  to 
be.     On  the  campus  such  disorders  have  never  been  more  serious  than  some  disorders 
taking  place  after  the  conferring  of  degrees.    They  have  always  been  easily  con- 
trolled.    •',*'.• 

It  may  be  replied  that  disorders  consequent  upon  victories  are  not  confined  to  the 
college  campus.  Indeed,  to  the  minds  of  many  candid  men,  the  great  disorders  which 
bring  dangerous  disgrace  to  the  present  system  of  college  athletics,  and  reflect  upon 
college  government  as  well,  occur  at  the  intercollegiate  contests,  when  the  athletes 
meet  on  neutral  ground.  *  *  *  For  this  evil  a  more  general  interest  in  the  subject 
on  the  part  of  instructors  and  parents,  and  their  more  general  attendance  at  the 
games,  would  easily  suggest  the  remedies  of  a  healthy  and  manifested  public  opinion, 
and  a  judicious  personal  influence. 

(5)  It  is  charged  against  athletics  that  they  benefit  the  few,  and  that  these  few  are 
those  least  requiring  the  exercise.    One  part  of  the  charge  can  be  appreciated — that 
few  are  benefited — these  few  being  the  members  of  the  crew,  nine,  eleven,  and  la- 

648 


PHYSICAL    TRAINING    IN   AMERICAN    COLLEGES. 


121 


crosse  teams  of  the  university.  These,  with  substitutes,  amount  to  about  fifty  men. 
But  it  has  been  already  shown  that  more  men  are  induced  to  exercise  than  the  actual 
membership  of  these  organizations ;  and  that  the  present  system  affects,  in  the  matter  of 
exercise,  at  least  half  of  the  undergraduate  department. 

The  objection  that  the  men  under  training  in  the  university  organizations  are  the 
men  least  requiring  the  training  can  be  understood  to  be  one  of  two  propositions, 
viz..  either  that  these  men  have  naturally  so  much  power  or  skill  that  they  need  not 
develop  any  more,  or  that  they  will  cultivate  their  strength  and  nerve  without  being 
stimulated  to  do  so  by  the  workings  of  the  present  system.  This  would  be  like  argu- 
ing that  men  of  great  mental  gifts  either  do  not  need  an  education,  or  would  get  an 
education  without  any  opportunities  being  provided  for  this  purpose  in  a  school  or 
college  system — a  proposition  which,  however  true  in  exceptional  cases,  taken  as  a 
general  statement  no  argument  is  required  to  prove  absurd.  *  *  * 

(6)  It  is  said,  again,  that  the  system  may  develop  men,  but  it  only  makes  fine  brutes 
of  them,  and  sets  before  the  college  a  false  standard  of  excellence,  viz.,  one  entirely 
physical.     It  cannot  be  said  with  truth  that  the  standard  is  false.     *    *    *    Other 
things  being  equal,  the  bright  mind  and  good  heart  in  a  strong  body  are  better  than 

the  same  things  in  a  weak  body,  because  they  can  accomplish  more  in  life. 

****•«•** 

(7)  The  evil  of  a  general  nature  last  to  be  considered  is  that  of  expense. 

The  expenses  of  the  organizations  which  have  special  university  representatives 
are  only  taken  into  account,  since  these  are  the  organizations  of  which  the  evils  have 
been  so  loudly  proclaimed  to  the  public.  In  the  table  given  below  (for  Yale  College) 
the  "  expenses "  and  "income"  are  the  totals  for  both  university  and  class  clrfbs 
combined.  For  base  ball,  foot  ball,  and  lacrosse,  the  amounts  in  the  column  headed 
"  earned  "  are  made  up  for  the  most  part  of  gate-money  taken  at  exhibition  games. 
For  the  boat  clubs,  of  the  amount  put  in  the  same  column,  $1,045.36  was  the  net  re- 
sult of  a  dramatic  entertainment  given  by  the  students  for  the  benefit  of  the  univer- 
sity club.  The  balance  was  obtained  from  entrance  and  carriage  fees  at  regattas, 
renting  of  lockers,  and  sale  of  boat. 


Clubs. 

Expenses. 

Income. 

Total. 

Balance 
from  1881. 

Earned. 

Subscribed. 

Boat  

$7,  348  86 
6,  863  38 
2,  689  80 
574  00 

$7,  426  52 
7,254  15 
2,  792  36 
575  00 

$177  54 

$1,  322  11 
5,457  15 
1,  329  65 
225  05 

$5,  926  87 
1,  797  00 
382  00 
349  95 

Baseball  

Football  

1,  080  71 

I/acrosse    .................      ... 

Total  

17,  476  04 

18,  048  03 

1,  258  25 

8,  333  96 

8,  455  82 

It  will  be  observed  that  the  total  amount  subscribed  is  less  than  half  the  expenses. 
Two  hundred  and  ninety  dollars  of  this  sum  were  given  by  graduates.  Deducting 
this,  and  considering  that,  according  to  the  catalogue  of  1881-'82,  there  were,  in  the 
undergraduate,  academical,  and  scientific  departments,  seven  hundred  and  eighty-six 
students,  the  cost  (above  earnings)  of  the  present  system  averages  only  a  little  over 
$10  per  man.  As  all  departments  are  benefited  by  the  system,  the  average  ought  to 
be  taken  for  the  whole  university.  There  being  in  the  university  over  one  thousand 
men,  the  average  cost  per  man  would  be  considerably  less  than  $10.  It  will  be  said 
that  part  of  the  earnings  come  from  the  students,  since  they  are  the  chief  attendants 
at  the  game.  This  is  true.  Assuming  that  half  the  earnings  corne  from  the  students 
(an  amount  probably  in  excess  of  the  real  amount),  the  average  cost  per  man  for  the 
university  will  not  be  far  from  $12.  Fifteen  dollars  per  man  would  undoubtedly 

649 


122  CIRCULAKS    OF    INFORMATION   FOR    1885. 

cover  the  whole  cost  of  athletics  throughout  the  year,  counting  not  only  the  athletics 
represented  in  the  table,  but  all  other  kinds  as  well.  Certainly  this  does  not  seem 
an  extravagant  sum  to  pay  for  the  benefits  derived  from  the  system.  The  writer  be- 
lieves that  the  expenses  can  be  very  much  diminished.  The  tendency  to  unnecessary 
increase  of  expenses  can  certainly  be  diminished  by  measures  hereafter  noticed. 

By  the  table,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  subscriptions  for  base  ball  and  foot  ball  were 
small  in  amount,  as  compared  with  their  earnings.  It  is  generally  believed,  among 
students,  that  the  university  organizations  of  both  these  sports  can  be  made  self- 
supporting. 

The  evils  already  commented  on  are  general.  There  are  other  so-called  evils  which 
are  special — some  peculiar  to  one  kind  of  athletics,  but  not  belonging  to  the  others. 
One  of  these,  charged  against  base  ball,  is  that  the  game  brings  the  students  into 
contact  with  "professionals."  Whatever  may  be  the  extent  of  the  evil  in  other  col- 
leges, at  Yale  it  has  not  proved  to  be  so  great  as  to  call  for  faculty  interference,  or 
even  to  excite  apprehension.  All  the  evils,  real  or  imaginary,  connected  with  ball- 
playing,  are  reduced  to  a  minimum  when  the  students  meet  "professionals."  They 
meet  them  simply  for  practice.  Betting  is,  as  a  rule,  precluded  by  the  fact  that  the 
result  is  generally  a  foregone  conclusion,  and  men  bet  on  only  doubtful  issues.  Off  the 
field  there  is  no  more  intercourse  between  the  students  and  the  "  professionals"  than  is 
necessary  to  transact  the  business  attending  the  match.  The  professional  nine  are 
then  generally  represented  by  their  business  manager,  and  the  students  by  the  presi- 
dent or  treasurer  of  their  club.  In  the  game  one  nine  is  in  the  field,  while  the  mem- 
bers of  the  other  are  at  the  bases,  or  waiting  for  their  turn  at  the  bat.  The  "  profes- 
sionals "  are  under  the  strictest  discipline,  so  that  their  presence  does  not  invite  or 
occasion  dissipation  in  any  form.  Victories  of  college  nines  over  "  professionals  "  are 
not  frequent,  and  are  not  attended  by  disorders  on  the  campus. 

But  to  some  objectors  the  evils  of  "professionalism"  in  athletics  includes  more 
than  playing  with  professional  nines.  The  employment  of  professional  "trainers"  in 
preparing  students  for  contests  is,  for  some,  the  chief  evil.  Such  trainers  are  looked 
upon  as  bad  companions  for  our  young  men.  It  is  contended  that  they  undermine 
the  morals  of  our  students  by  their  profanity  and  generally  low  talk.  They  are  also 
supposed  to  give  too  high  a  standard  of  excellence  for  our  amateur  athletes,  and 
thus  to  draw  on  too  much  of  their  time  and  strength  in  the  effort  to  make  them  conform 
to  this  standard.  All  these  things  may  happen  in  some  cases,  but  they  do  not  hap- 
pen frequently. 

**»*»** 

An  easy  cure  for  possible  evils  in  this  direction  would  be  for  the  Faculty  of  each  col- 
lege troubled  by  vicious  trainers  to  forbid  their  students  employing  such  men.  An  in- 
vestigation, however,  into  the  relations  between  such  trainers  and  their  pupils  would 
show  that  the  pupils  despise  the  lowness  of  the  men  quite  as  much  as  do  the  Faculty 
themselves.  Another  and  better  remedy  would  be  to  select  an  amateur  athlete  from 
the  graduates,  educated  as  a  physician,  and  give  him  a  salaried  office,  with  duties 
as  general  advisejr  and  guardian  of  the  athletic  interests.  Such  a  man,  if  properly 
qualified,  would  help  the  students  to  a  safer  and  better  physical  development  than 
they  now  get,  and  would,  besides,  soon  drive  away  all  trainers  exercising  improper 
influences  among  them. 

»**»»** 
What  the  condition  of  the  college  would  be  w  ithout  a  system  of  athletics  is  a  question 
already  partly  answered  by  what  has  been  said  in  meeting  the  charges  against  the 
system.     We  can  understand,  also,  theeffectofabolishingthepresentsystembycalling 
to  mind  the  disorders  reported  in  colleges  in  which  no  such  system  is  allowed  to  exist. 
The  revolts  against  authority  and  the  great  disorders  between  classes  now  occur  with 
the  most  frequency,  not  at  colleges  which  have  the  greatest  number  of  students  and 
the  most  extensive  athletic  organizations,  but  at  the  colleges  in  which  the  students 
650 


PHYSICAL    TEAINING    IN   AMERICAN    COLLEGES.  123 

cither  are  not  able  or  are  not  allowed  to  establish  such  organizations.  The  disorders 
which  used  to  occur  in  New  Haven  thirty  or  even  twenty-five  years  ago  ought  to  con- 
vince any  candid  man  that,  however  great  the  present  evils  of  college  life  are  with 
athletics,  the  past  evils  without  athletics  were  worse. 

******* 

As  to  those  evils  which  are  capable  of  remedy,  and  of  which  the  remedy  has  not 
been  before  expressed  or  implied,  we  will  take  up  that  of  unnecessary  expense.  It 
has  been  before  shown  that  the  expense  of  the  system  is  not  enormous,  considering 
the  good  done.  But  undoubtedly  it  is  greater  than  it  need  be.  Moreover,  it  will 
naturally  tend  to  increase.  *  *  *  Each  officer,  as  a  rule,  serves  but  a  year, 
when  he  makes  room  for  a  new  officer,  who  is  as  inexperienced  as  his  predecessor. 
The  experience  gained  eacli  year  might  be  made  serviceable  by  associating  with  the 
incoming  treasurer  a  permanent  graduate  treasurer.  The  vice-president  might  be 
elected  to  become  president  as  soon  as  the  year's  service  of  the  president  expired,  so 
that  he  would  serve  as  vice-president  one  year  and  one  year  as  president,  his  service 
thus  extending  over  two  years.  *  *  *  Besides  the  changes  suggested,  a  gen- 
eral auditing  committee  for  all  the  interests  should  be  formed,  consisting  of  grad- 
uates and  undergraduates.  *  *  *  A  committee  of  both  graduates  and  under- 
dergraduates  could  audit  the  accounts,  and  would  be  able  to  make  suggestions  which 
would  be  sure  of  a  hearing.  By  such  changes  in  the  system  and  the  economies  which 
ought  to  result  from  them,  field  sports,  such  as  base  ball,  foot  ball,  and  lacrosse, 
should  be  self-supporting.  The  income  derived  from  gate-money  should  meet  the 
expenses. 

Since  some  very  worthy  people  who  believe  in  manly  sports  object  to  young  men 
playing  for  money  taken  at  the  exhibition  games,  it  is  necessary  to  say  a  word  of  ex- 
planation with  regard  to  this  feature  of  all  ball-games.  If  field  athletics  are  to  con- 
tinue, the  expense  of  them  must  be  met  in  one  of  two  ways,  either  by  gate-money 
or  by  subscription.  *  *  *  It  seems  only  just  that,  if  the  public  desire  to  see  a 
good  game,  they  should  pay  for  the  exhibition.  The  men  work  hard  in  practice, 
and  are  entitled  to  have  their  expenses  paid.  More  than  that  they  do  not  ask.  They 
do  not  play  for  gain,  but  for  honor.  By  their  rules,  they  do  not  allow  any  man  to 
be  a  member  of  their  organizations  who  has  earned  money  as  a  professional. 

The  evil  of  liability  to  strains  and  injuries  in  athletics  cannot  be  entirely  obviated. 
*  *  *  Yet,  so  far,  according  to  the  recollection  of  the  writer,  no  regular  mem- 
ber of  a  Yale  crew,  team,  or  nine,  has  been  permanently  injured  by  participating 
in  a  race  or  match.  Still,  it  is  possible  that  a  slight  injury,  to  a  person  having 
organic  weakness,  might  result  in  a  fatal  difficulty.  Such  an  issue  might  be  avoided 
by  the  requirement  that  every  candidate  for  trial  should  be  examined  by  a  competent 
physician,  and,  in  default  of  procuring  a  certificate  of  physical  soundness,  should  be 
excluded  from  participation  in  athletic  contests.  Besides  this,  every  candidate  for  a 
place  in  a  crew  should  be  debarred  from  entering  a  race  unless  he  had  mastered  the 
art  of  swimming. 

If,  moreover,  the  Faculty  of  every  college  having  a  system  of  athletics  would  exert 
a  sympathetic  as  well  as  a  judicious  oversight  of  the  students  interested  in  the  sys- 
tem, they  would  find  the  young  men  quite  willing  to  listen  to  friendly  suggestions. 
If,  also,  the  times  of  recitation  were  so  arranged  that  a  proper  amount  of  time  could 
be  devoted  to  exercise  without  interference  with  study,  more  brain-work,  and  of 
better  quality,  would  be  secured  than  by  the  policy  prevailing  in  some  colleges,  ac- 
cording to  which,  not  only  no  encouragement  is  given  to  athletic  sports,  but,  on  the 
contrary,  every  obstacle  is  thrown  in  their  way. 

The  college  which  neglects  or  ignores  physical  culture  may  send  out  scholars,  but 
it  will  not  educate  forceful  men.  It  will  not  be  the  living  power  which  it  might  be. 
Truth  is  not  to  prevail  by  the  dry  light  of  intellect  alone,  but  through  the  agency  of 
good,  wise,  and  strong  men. 

651 


124  CIRCULARS    OF    INFORMATION   FOR   1885. 

The  Yale  authorities,  we  are  assured,  "take  no  official  notice"  in 
regard  to  athletics,  and  exercise  no  interference,  except  the  negative 
one  of  granting  no  privileges.  Individually  two  or  three  members  of 
the  Faculty  take  great  interest  and  show  sympathy  by  attendance  and 
personal  encouragement. 


PROFESSIONALISM  ASD  INTERCOLLEGIATE  CONTESTS. 

DEMORALIZING  INFLUENCE   OF  PROFESSIONALISM. 

Professionalism  has  done  much  within  the  last  five  years  to  bring 
discredit  upon  college  sports;  and  by  professionalism  we  mean  the 
purpose  to  win  a  game  by  any  means,  fair  or  foul.  Professionals  make 
a  business  of  contending  for  money,  either  as  stakes  or  prizes  or  gate 
receipts,  having  little  or  no  regard  to  the  benefits  which  should  accrue 
from  the  exercise  of  bodily  force  or  skill.  The  enhancement  of  health 
and  manliness  by  vigorous  recreative  action  is  the  primary  aim  of 
athletics.  This  is  frequently  lost  vsight  of  in  the  pursuit  of  athletic 
honors.  Honors  obtained  at  the  cost  of  physical  strains  or  one  sided 
development  are  dearly  bought  and  injurious.  Not  a  few  are  stimu- 
lated to  unduly  exhausting  and  violent  exertions  by  their  ill-judged 
desire  to  win.  Athletic  honors  are  sometimes — not  generally,  but  more 
and  more  frequently  in  recent  years — sought  by  collegians  through  the 
use  of  dishonorable  means.  The  intercourse  between  college  teams 
smacks  too  often  of  the  manners  of  professional  pugilists  and  of  roughs. 
Expedients  to  disable  or  outwit  antagonists  have  come  to  be  looked  on 
with  too  great  a  degree  of  allowance.  Questionable  means  are  some- 
times employed  to  enable  professionals  or  semi  professionals  to  play 
in  college  teams.  When  college  men  are  willing  to  travel  with  profes- 
sional ball  players,  and  especially  under  assumed  names,  it  is  time  for 
college  authorities  to  recognize  and  regulate  college  athletics. 

THE  REGULATION  OF  ATHLETICS  AT  HARVARD. 

At  Harvard  the  Committee  on  Athletics  is  one  of  the  standing  com- 
mittees of  the  Faculty.  The  following  regulations,  promulgated  by  this 
committee  October  7, 1882,  serve  to  exemplify  in  a  measure  the  ideas  of 

the  Harvard  authorities  with  regard  to  the  matter : 

• 

(1)  No  college  club  or  athletic  association  shall  play  or  compete  with  professionals. 

(2)  No  person  shall  assume  the  functions  of  trainer  or  instructor  in  athletics,  upon 
the  grounds  or  within  the  buildings  of  the  college,  without  authority  in  writing  from 
the  committee. 

(3)  No  student  shall  enter  as  a  competitor  in  any  athletic  sport,  or  join  any  college 
athletic  club  as  an  active  member,  including  base  ball,  foot  ball,  cricket,  lacrosse,  and 
rowing  associations,  without  a  previous  examination  by  the  director  of  the  gymna- 
sium, and  his  permission  so  to  do. 

652 


PHYSICAL    TRAINING    IN    AMERICAN   COLLEGES.  125 

(4)  From  the  beginning  of  the  college  year  1883-'84  no  person  shall  be  admitted  as 
a  member  of  any  class  or  university  crew  unless  he  knows  how  to  swim. 

(5)  All  match  games  outside  of  Cambridge  shall  be  played  upon  Saturday,  unless 
permission  to  play  on  other  days  is  first  obtained  from  the  committee. 

It  should  be  noted  that  certain  remedies  proposed  last  March  by 
Professor  Richards  for  admitted  or  "  possible"  evils  in  college  athletics, 
were  embodied,  in  1882,  by  the  Harvard  Faculty  in  the  above  quoted 
Regulations  2,  3,  and  4.  They  have  also  adopted  by  anticipatory 
action,  we  believe,  another  of  his  suggested  remedies,  viz.,  the  appoint- 
ment of  an  auditing. or  advisory  committee  in  relation  to  expenditures 
for  athletic  purposes. 

By  some  of  their  impatient  critics  it  has  even  been  proposed  to  abolish 
intercollegiate  contests.  To  attempt  such  extreme  measures  would  be 
unwise,  if  not  futile.  Those  who  propose  them  fail  to  appreciate  how 
strongly  rooted  an  institution  athletics  have  become ;  how  great  is  their 
educational  value  when  rightly  managed ;  and  how  far  sympathy,  tact, 
and  reasonableness  are  demanded  in  governing  undergraduates.  We 
must  think,  however,  that  the  endeavors  of  the  Harvard  authorities  to 
eliminate  the  aims  and  methods  of  professionals  from  college  athletics 
were  called  for  and  timely. 

THE   INTERCOLLEGIATE   ATHLETIC   CONFERENCE   OF  1884. 

Early  in  February,  1884,  an  Intercollegiate  Athletic  Conference  was 
held  in  New  York  City,  at  which  delegates  from  the  Faculties  of  the 
following  named  colleges  were  reported  to  be  present :  "Williams,  Am- 
herst,  Dartmouth,  Tufts,  Harvard,  Columbia,  Trinity,  Wesleyan  Univer- 
sity, Stevens  Institute,  Hobart,  Rutgers,  Lafayette,  Bowdoin,  Princeton, 
Union,  Cornell,  Lehigh,  Brown,  University  of  Pennsylvania,  University 
of  Vermont,  and  College  of  the  City  of  New  York.  Harvard  took  the 
lead  in  calling  the  conference.  Yale  was  not  represented  at  it.  The  fol- 
lowing circular  letter  was  issued  by  the  conference : 

REGULATIONS  FOR  INTERCOLLEGIATE  ATHLETIC  SPORTS. 

FEBRUARY  7,  1884. 

The  object  of  physical  training  is  to  confirm  health,  correct  morbid  tendencies, 
strengthen  weak  parts,  give  a  symmetrical  muscular  development,  and  secure  as  far 
as  possible  a  condition  of  perfect  physical  vigor.  In  order  to  accomplish  these  desir- 
able ends,  young  men  are  encouraged  to  take  exercise  and  to  enter  into  the  general 
practice  of  athletic  sports  and  games.  If,  however,  the  object  of  physical  training 
be  lost  sight  of,  and  the  desire  to  win  the  championship  or  to  attain  the  highest  degree 
of  excellence  in  these  sports  be  made  the  paramount  aim,  then  the  practice  of  athlet- 
ics is  likely  to  be  attended  with  evils  that  demand  consideration.  Some  of  these 
evils  have  already  begun  to  make  themselves  manifest  in  the  practice  of  college  sports. 
With  a  view  to  correcting  them,  and  of  making  athletic  exercises  an  aid  instead  of  a 
hindrance  to  the  cause  of  education,  the  Intercollegiate  Athletic  Conference  recom- 
mend the  adoption  of  the  following  resolutions: 

It  is  deemed  advisable  that  physical  training  should  form  an  essential  part  of  a 
collegiate  course;  that  the  person  selected  to  superintend  this  branch  of  education 

653 


126  CIRCULARS    OF    INFORMATION   FOR    1885. 

should  be  a  man  of  character  and  ability,  and  that  the  dignity  of  his  position  should 
be  recognized  by  giving  him  the  moral  support  of  the  appointing  power  of  the  col- 
lege. Therefore, 

(1)  Resolved,  That  every  director  or  instructor  in  physical  exercises  or  athletic  sports 
must  be  appointed  by  the  college  authorities,  and  announced  as  such  in  the  catalogue. 

The  object  for  which  youug  mefc  come  to  college  is  to  get  an  education.  If  this 
object  is  to  be  secured,  it  is  impossible  for  them  to  make  a  serious  business  of  any- 
thing else.  Ball  playing,  boating,  etc.,  are  engaged  in  by  students  as  recreations,  and 
students  ought  not  to  be  expected  to  compete  on  equal  terms  with  those  who  make 
the  practice  of  these  recreative  sports  the  business  of  their  lives.  Students  who  compete 
or  practice  with  professionals  undoubtedly  gain  in  experience  and  skill,  but  this  ren- 
ders it  necessary  that  their  college  opponents  should  have  a  similar  advantage  or  the 
terms  would  be  unequal.  This  would  lead  to  the  general  employment  of  professional 
service  in  every  branch  of  competitive  sport.  But  it  is  known  that  the  character  of 
professionals,  as  a  whole,  is  not  high  ;  that  their  aim  is  to  win  at  all  costs;  that  they 
are  often  ready  to  sacrifice  honor  and  self-respect,  and  even  to  jeopardize  health,  for 
mercenary  motives.  It  is  believed  that  the  general  employment  of  this  class  and  the 
infusion  of  the  professional  ^)irit  into  college  athletics  would  lead  to  their  speedy 
decline.  Therefore, 

(2)  Resolved,  That  no  professional  athlete,  oarsman,  or  ball  player,  shall  be  employed 
either  for  instruction  or  for  practice  in  preparation  for  any  intercollegiate  contest. 

Much  of  the  expense  and  loss  of  time  attending  the  practice  of  college  sports  is 
occasioned  by  playing  games  at  a  distance ;  yet  for  various  reasons  it  seems  advisable 
that  intercollegiate  contests  in  these  sports  should  be  continued.  They  develop 
strength  and  executive  ability,  as  well  as  courage,  presence  of  mind,  and  other  im- 
portant elements  of  character.  They  give  students  an  opportunity  to  measure  their 
physical  powers  with  others,  and,  when  conducted  in  the  right  spirit,  tend  to  make 
friends  of  rivals  and  to  subordinate  class  feeling  to  college  unity.  For  these  reasons, 
these  games  ought  to  be  more  generally  played  in  college.  Class  nines  and  foot-ball 
teams  should  be  formed  as  well  as  class  crews ;  and  the  university  teams  should  de- 
pend more  largely  upon  these  organizations  for  practice.  If  the  base-ball  nines  of 
one  college  practice  with  expert  amateur  clubs,  because  such  clubs  exist  in  their 
vicinity,  this  compels  the  nines  of  other  colleges,  not  so  favorably  situated,  to  prac- 
tice with  inferior  amateur  organizations,  regular  professionals,  or,  what  is  more  to  be 
regretted,  with  undisciplined  semi-professionals.  Therefore, 

(3)  Resolved,  That  no  college  organization  shall  row,  or  play  base  ball,  foot  ball, 
lacrosse,  or  cricket,  except  with  similar  organizations  from  their  own  or  other  in- 
stitutions of  learning. 

During  the  past  few  years  several  disagreeable  controversies  have  arisen  and  much 
ill-feeling  has  been  occasioned  by  the  manner  in  which  intercollegiate  contests  have 
been  conducted.  Much  of  the  consequent  dissatisfaction  may  be  attributed  to  want 
of  proper  preliminary  arrangements,  over-zealonsness  on  the  part  of  some  of  the 
officials  to  see  their  own  men  win,  a  neglect  to  make  rules  and  regulations  to  prevent 
unfair  play,  and  a  failure  to  provide  a  referee  willing  to  enforce  the  regulations  pre- 
scribed. Students  in  their  conventions  represent  no  one  but  themselves,  and  often 
act  without  responsibility  and  without  authority,  committing  their  fellow  student* 
to  a  questionable  policy  and  establishing  precedents  which  are  detrimental  to  the 
interest  of  college  sports.  Therefore, 

(4)  Resolved,  That  there  shall  be  a  standing  committee,  composed  of  one  member 
from  the  Faculty  of  each  of  the  colleges  adopting  these  regulations,  whose  duty  it 
shall  be  to  supervise  all  contests  in  which  students  of  their  respective  colleges  may 
engage,  and  approve  all  rules  and  regulations  under  which  such  contests  may  be 
held. 

The  students  who  are  selected  to  take  part  in  college  athletics  are  men  of  fine  phy- 
sique, who,  in  order  to  keep  themselves  in  excellent  condition,  do  not  need  the  amount 
654 


PHYSICAL    TRAINING    IN    AMERICAN    COLLEGES.  127 

of  training  which  they  get.  Not  infrequently  these  men  have  built  up  their  bodies 
on  farms  and  in  workshops,  and  are  paying  their  way  through  college  by  tutoring 
and  other  means.  Time  is  of  great  importance  to  them ;  but  their  physical  powers 
are  in  demand,  and  they  are  forcibly  urged  to  join  the  "  crow"  or  "nine,"  and  work 
for  victory  and  athletic  honors.  This  double  draft  upon  their  energies  sometimes 
costs  them  their  degree,  and  obliges  them  to  spend  another  year  in  college.  Men 
have  even  been  induced  to  enter  the  professional  schools  after  graduation  that  they 
might  help  retain  the  championship  in  certain  sports. 

The  evil  of  such  a  course  is  twofold :  It  tends  to  raise  the  standard  of  the  sport  be- 
yond the  capacity  of  the  undergraduate,  and  thus  limits  the  number  that  can  par- 
ticipate in  it.  It  makes  hard  work  of  what  was  intended  for  a  recreation,  and  some- 
times obliges  a  young  man  to  make  serious  changes  in  his  plan  of  life.  Therefore, 

(5)  Risolved,  That  no  student  shall  be  allowed  to  take  part  in  any  intercollegiate 
contest  as  a  member  of  any  club,  team,  or  crew,  for  more  than  four  years. 

The  practice  of  playing  match  games  in  large  cities  for  the  sake  of  gate  money  has 
crept  into  college  sports  within  the  past  few  years.  The  evils  which  result  from  this 
practice  are  many.  It  leads  to  the  introduction  or  retention  of  such  features  in  the 
games  as  tend  to  draw  large  crowds,  independently  of  the  merit  of  the  game  and  the 
spirit  of  fair  play.  It  induces  college  men  to  put  themselves  in  the  hands  of  specula- 
tors, who  manipulate  and  manage  them  as  they  would  any  traveling  combination 
for  the  money  to  be  made  by  it.  It  cultivates  a  passion  for  excitement  in  both  play- 
ers and  speculators,  which  makes  the  ordinary  field  sports  and  gymnastic  exercises 
seem  tame  and  uninteresting,  thus  depriving  the  great  majority  of  college  students 
of  a  motive  for  physical  exertion.  Therefore, 

(6)  Resolved,  That  all  intercollegiate  games  of  base  ball,  foot  ball,  lacrosse,  and  cricket 
shall  take  place  upon  the  home  grounds  of  one  or  other  of  the  competing  colleges. 

Nearly  every  intercollegiate  boat  race  in  this  country  has  been  won  at  the  end  of 
the  third  mile.  The  result  has  been  a  "  procession  "  for  the  fourth  mile,  or  a  desperate 
attempt  on  the  part  of  the  defeated  crew  to  retrieve  themselves.  The  consequent 
tendency  has  been  to  lessen  the  interest  in  college  boating,  or  to  endanger  the  health 
of  the  participants  from  over-exertion  and  heart-strain.  The  training  of  class  crew* 
is  generally  for  two  miles.  The  style  of  rowing  for  a  four-mile  race  is  essentially  dif- 
ferent from  that  of  a  two-mile  race,  and  requires  different  qualifications.  The  work 
of  the  class  crew  should  be  preparatory  to  that  of  the  university  crew.  This  is  the 
goal  for  which  most  of  the  members  of  the  class  crews  are  struggling,  and  they  should 
not  be  discouraged  by  having  the  difference  in  style  and  requirements  too  marked  at 
the  outset.  Therefore, 

(7)  Resolved,  That  no  intercollegiate  boat  race  shall  be  for  a  longer  distance  than 
three  miles. 

As  loiig  as  intercollegiate  contests  arc  continued,  the  conditions  under  which  th& 
students  of  the  different  colleges  compete  should  be  as  nearly  equal  as  possible.  It 
is  manifest  that  the  conditions  could  not  be  equal  should  any  college  which  adopts 
these  resolutions  play  with  any  college  which  does  not  adopt  them.  Therefore, 

(8)  Resolved,  That  the  students  of  colleges  in  which  these  resolutions  are  in  force 
shall  not  be  allowed  to  engage  in  games  or  contests  with  the  students  of  colleges  in 
which  they  are  not  in  force. 

W.  M.  SLOANE  (COLLEGE  OF  NEW  JERSEY), 

Chairman. 
D.  A.  SARGENT  (HARVARD  COLLEGE), 

Secretary. 

The  recommendations  of  this  circular  failed  of  adoption  by  the  con- 
current action  of  five  colleges,  and  no  subsequent  attempt  has  been 
made  to  secure  an  intercollegiate  athletic  code.  Of  the  code  as  pro- 
posed it  may  be  said  that,  though  many  of  the  colleges  taking  part  in 

655 


128  CIRCULARS    OF    INFORMATION    FOR    1885. 

the  conference  concurred  as  to  its  general  principles,  it  was  judged  that 
its  detailed  working  would  entail  hardships  in  many  cases.  The  entire 
field  of  athletics  can  hardly  be  controlled  in  accordance  with  a  single 
set  of  rules.  It  seems  more  feasible  to  have  the  rules  under  which 
intercollegiate  contests  shall  take  place  enacted  by  special  conferences 
touching  each  athletic  interest,  e.  #.,  foot  ball  and  base  ball ;  care  being 
taken  to  have  the  student  organizations  represented,  as  well  as  the  dif- 
ferent Faculties. 

HARVARD'S  ACTION  REGARDING  FOOT  BALL. 

Harvard,  failing  to  secure  the  co-operation  of  other  colleges  for  the 
regulation  of  intercollegiate  sports,  has  very  recently  forbidden  the  foot- 
ball elevens  of  the  university  from  engaging  in  any  more  intercollegiate 
matches.  This  action  was  due  to  the  belief  that  foot  ball  had  become 
a  "  brutal  and  dangerous"  game.  At  Princeton,  even  more  recently,  i.  e., 
in  February,  1885,  the  Faculty  have,  it  is  reported,  conditioned  their 
consent  to  future  participation  by  Princeton  players  in  intercollegiate 
foot-ball  matches  on  the  revision  and  improvement  of  the  present  ob- 
jectionable rules  of  the  game.  It  is  a  curious  fact  that  our  imitative 
collegians,  in  adopting  the  Eugby  game  of  foot  ball,  as  has  been  so  gen- 
erally the  case,  have  adopted  one  of  the  roughest  of  the  English  varie- 
ties of  the  game.  The  influence  of  "Tom  Brown  at  Eugby"  may  be 
partly  responsible  for  this.  Foot  ball  is  played  in  such  different  fash- 
ions at  the  great  English  schools  that  interschool  matches  are  less  gen- 
eral in  England  than  are  intercollegiate  matches  in  the  United  States. 

We  have  given  the  Yale  view  of  athletics  as  expounded  by  Professor 
Eichards,  because  that  exposition  may  stand  as  the  best  utterance  of 
those  who  favor  non-interference  by  college  authorities  in  college  ath- 
letics. The  following  report  to  the  Faculty  of  Harvard  University  by 
its  standing  committee  on  athletics,  is  here  given  as  an  expression  of 
the  Harvard  idea  of  regulating  what  is  deemed  by  them  the  most  objec- 
tionable of  athletic  games,  viz.,  foot  ball: 

To  the  Faculty  of  Harvard  College: 

GENTLEMEN  :  On  the  22d  of  November,  1883,  the  committee  on  athletics,  believing 
that  the  game  of  foot  ball  had  begun  to  degenerate  into  a  brutal  and  dangerous  con- 
test, informed  the  captain  of  the  Harvard  eleven  that  the  team  could  not  be  allowed 
to  take  part  in  any  further  intercollegiate  match-game  until  substantial  changes  in 
the  rules  had  been  made.  According  to  the  rules  then  existing  a  player  could  hack, 
throttle,  buff,  trip  up,  tackle  below  the  hips,  or  strike  an  opponent  with  closed  fist 
three  times,  before  he  was  sent  from  the  field.  Changes  in  the  rules  were  made  im- 
mediately, and  they  were  subsequently  adopted  by  the  intercollegiate  association.  In 
June  of  the  present  year  the  committee  said  to  the  captain  of  the  Harvard  team  for 
1884  that  the  eleven  would  be  allowed  to  play  during  the  following  season,  on  the  un- 
derstanding that  the  games  should  be  regarded  as  a  test  whether  or  not  the  changes 
of  rules  had  resulted  in  substantial  changes  of  the  character  of  the  game. 

At  the  beginning  of  this  season  your  committee  decided  to  attend  the  games  of  the 
656 


PHYSICAL   TRAINING   IN   AMERICAN    COLLEGES.  129 

intercollegiate  series,  and  to  observe  them  carefully.  We  have  attended  four  games, 
the  three  of  the  Harvard-Yale- Princeton  series,  and  one  between  Wesleyan  and  the 
University  of  Pennsylvania,  played  in  New  York  on  the  morning  of  Thanksgiving 
day  for  the  third  place  among  the  college  teams.  At  each  of  the  games  we  stationed 
ourselves  in  different  parts  of  the  field,  and  observed  and  carefully  noted  what 
seemed  to  us  the  objectionable  feature  of  the  play.  Two  of  the  games,  those  in  which 
the  Harvard  team  took  part,  were  very  one-sided  contests.  In  the  Yale-Princeton  and 
Wesleyan-Pennsylvania  games  the  opposing  teams  were  very  evenly  matched.  Of 
the  four  games,  the  Yale-Harvard  game  was  the  least  objectionable,  and  the  Wes- 
leyan-Pennsylvania game  was  the  worst. 

In  every  one  of  these  games  there  was  brutal  fighting  with  the  fists,  where  the  men 
had  to  be  separated  by  other  players,  or  by  the  judges  and  the  referee,  or  by  the  by- 
standers and  the  police.  We  saw  one  such  case  in  the  Harvard-Princeton  game,  two 
in  the  Harvard- Yale  game,  three  in  the  Yale-Princeton  game,  and  three  in  the  Wes- 
leyan-Pennsylvania game. 

In  addition  to  these  fights  there  were  numerous  instances  where  a  single  blow  was 
struck,  instances  that  occurred  in  every  one  of  the  games.  A  man  was  felled  by  a 
blow  in  the  face  in  the  Harvard-Princeton  game,  in  the  Harvard- Yale  game,  in  the 
Yale-Princeton  game.  In  the  Wesleyan-Pennsylvania  game  a  man  was  thrown  un- 
fairly, out  of  bounds,  by  an  opposing  player.  Then,  as  he  was  rising,  but  before  he 
was  on  his  feet,  his  antagonist  turned,  struck  him  in  the  face  and  knocked  him  down, 
and  returned  in  triumph  with  the  ball. 

In  all  the  games  the  manifestation  of  gentlemanly  spirit  was  lacking — the  spirit 
that  scorns  to  take  an  unfair  advantage  of  an  opponent.  The  teams  played  to  win  by 
fair  means  or  by  foul. 

Unfair  play,  often  premeditated  and  sometimes  concerted,  was  a  prominent  feature 
in  all  of  the  games,  and,  although  not  always  successful,  was  rarely  punished.  Inten- 
tional off-side  play  and  unlawful  interference  with  opponents  who  were  not  running 
with  the  ball  were  the  rule  rather  than  the  exception.  The  game  is  demoralizing  to 
the  spectators  mainly  through  its  brutality  ;  unfair  play  they  usually  fail  to  recog- 
nize. We  often  heard  cries- of  "Kill  him!"  "  Break  his  neck !"  "Slug  him!"  "Hit 
him!"  "Knock  him  down!"  from  those  around  us.  That  the  game  is  dangerous  needs 
no  argument.  The  Rugby  game  of  foot  ball,  under  the  present  rules,  might  perhaps 
be  played  with  advantage  where  public  opinion  was  strong  enough  to  make  deliber- 
ate attempts  at  unfair  or  brutal  play  impossible.  There  is,  unfortunately,  no  such 
controlling  sentiment  among  college  students.  The  nature  of  the  game  puts  a  pre- 
mium on  unfair  play,  inasmuch  as  such  play  is  easy,  is  profitable  if  it  succeeds,  ia 
unlikely  to  be  detected  by  the  referee,  and  if  detected  is  very  slightly  punished.  If 
two  teams  are  at  all  evenly  matched,  and  one  plays  a  gentlemanly  and  the  other  an 
unfair  game,  the  self-respecting  team  will  always  be  beaten.  The  game  is  so  com- 
plicated, so  confused,  and  covers  so  much  ground,  that  no  referee,  however  honest 
and  determined,  can  see  half  of  what  is  going  ou,  especially  since  the  judges,  who 
were  originally  intended  to  help  him  in  securing  fair  play,  have  developed  into  cap- 
tains of  their  teams,  and  purposely  distract  his  attention  and  increase  his  difficulties. 

After  deliberate  investigation  we  have  become  convinced  that  the  game  of  foot  ball, 
as  at  present  played  by  college  teams,  is  brutal,  demoralizing  to  players  and  specta- 
tors, and  extremely  dangerous ;  and  we  do  not  believe  that  at  the  present  time,  and 
with  the  prevailing  spirit,  any  revision  of  the  rules  made  by  the  intercollegiate  asso- 
ciation could  be  effective  in  removing  these  objectionable  features. 

We  therefore  recommend  that  all  games  of  foot  ball  be  prohibited  to  students  of 
the  college,  except  those  played  by  our  own  men  on  our  own  grounds,  and  that  these 
shall  be  allowed  only  in  case  it  shall  prove  possible  to  eliminate  all  objectionable 
features  from  the  game.  We  believe  that  foot  ball,  played  in  the  proper  spirit,  under 
proper  conditions,  may  be  made  one  of  the  mppt  valuable  of  college  sports,  and  we 

657 
5068—^0.  5 9 


130  CIRCULARS    OF    INFORMATION    FOR    1885. 

should  deprecate  its  permanent  loss.  We  have  conferred  with  students  interested  in 
the  game  at  a  meeting  whero  there  was  great  unanimity  of  opinion  concerning  its 
present  objectionable  character,  and  have  grounds  for  hope  that  means  may  be  de- 
vised to  make  it  a  credit,  in  place  of  a  disgrace,  to  the  university. 

JOHN  WILLIAMS  WHITE, 
W.  E.  BYERLY, 
D.  A.  SARGENT, 

Committee  on  Athletics. 
CAMBRIDGE,  December  2,  1884. 

The  recommendation  of  this  report,  "that  all  games  of  foot  ball  be 
prohibited  to  students  of  the  college,"  was  adopted  by  the  Faculty  by  a 
vote  of  twenty-four  to  five. 

THE  POLICY  OF  THE  HARVARD  COMMITTEE  ON  ATHLETICS. 

Undoubtedly  the  firm  stand  taken  at  Harvard  will  have  a  stimulat- 
ing and  salutary  effect  upon  the  future  action  of  other  colleges.  For 
the  purpose  of  showing  that  good  results  have  already  been  secured 
through  the  efforts  of  the  committee  on  athletics,  the  following  extract 
from  the  correspondence  of  the  New  York  Evening  Post  is  subjoined : 

CAMBRIDGE,  Mass.,  February  12,  1885. 

Athletics  at  Harvard  are  slowly  undergoing  a  great  change — a  change  which,  in 
the  judgment  of  all  who  have  without  prejudice  watched  the  movement,  is  for  the 
better.  In  former  days,  when  the  Hemenway  Gymnasium  was  as  yet  unbuilt,  and 
the  little  octagonal  building  which  is  now  the  university  carpenter-shop  was  the  only 
place  in  which  Harvard  muscle  could  be  cultivated,  the  college  was  overrun  with 
ruffians — "professionals"  in  the  worst  sense  of  the  term — who  exhibited  their  feats 
to  the  students  for  hire.  But  this  was  not  the  worst.  In  many  cases  the  object  of  the 
"professional"  was  not  the  earning  of  honest  money  by  the  teaching  of  his  specialty, 
but  the  inducing  of  young  men  to  go  with  him  to  the  city  under  pretense  of  seeing 
some  athletic  exhibition,  in  order  there  to  initiate  them  into  all  kinds  of  vice  and  to 
swindle  them  of  their  money. 

This  state  of  affairs  has  passed  away.  "  Roughs"  no  longer  have  possession  of  the 
gymnasium,  but  instead  there  are  honest  instructors  and  a  capable  manager.  But  the 
war  against  professionalism  still  goes  on.  In  this  war  the  chief  battlers  are  the  three 
men  who  form  the  athletic  committee. 

The  committee  is  not  appreciated  by  the  students ;  it  is  fashionable  among  them  to 
joke  about,  oppose,  and  argue  against  all  its  acts.  They  say  that  Latin  and  Greek 
professors  are  not  capable  of  managing  athletics ;  that  their  actions  are  uncalled  for 
and  inefficient ;  that,  finally,  the  committee  has  no  reason  for  existence.  The  only 
thing  that  the  students  as  a  body  will  allow  to  the  committee  is  "  good  intentions." 

But  this  estimate  is  not  supported  by  facts.  The  facts  are  that  the  members  of  the 
athletic  committee  are  all  trained  athletes  as  well  as  cultured  men  ;  that  they  have 
the  good  practical  knowledge  necessary  for  the  conduct  of  athletic  affairs,  and  that 
they  have  a  keen  and  friendly  interest  in  all  sports  of  the  collegians.  In  fighting 
against  a  tangible  evil  their  actions  have  been  called  for,  and  in  a  great  measure 
efficient. 

To  those  who  are  interested  in  Harvard  athletics  a  clear  statement  of  what  this 
committee  is,  will  be  interesting.  It  is  a  committee  of  the  Faculty,  the  special  duty 
of  which  is  the  overseeing  of  all  the  athletic  interests  of  the  college.  It  may  be  said 
with  truth  that  the  athletic  committee  is  the  Faculty  as  far  as  athletics  are  concerned ; 
for  any  suggestion  which  they  may  make  to  the  Faculty  is  almost  certain  to  be  ap- 
proved by  that  body. 
658 


PHYSICAL    TRAINING    IN    AMERICAN    COLLEGES.  131 

To  those  who  have  watched  the  progress  of  affairs  from  the  first  forbidding  of  base- 
ball contests  with  professional  players  up  to  the  late  foot-ball  manifesto  and  the  dis- 
missal of  Colonel  Bancroft  as  coach  of  the  crews,  the  committee  may  seem  to  lack 
plan  and  to  be  often  inconsistent.  But  this  is  not  so,  their  policy  in  every  case  being 
"  the  greatest  amount  of  exercise  for  the  greatest  number." 

Under  this  policy  foot  ball,  confined  practically  to  eleven  men,  and  base  ball,  also 
limited  to  a  small  number  of  men,  have  been  discouraged,  while  all  gymnastic  work 
in  which  every  member  of  the  college  can  take  part,  all  track  athletics,  which  by 
their  nature  are  open  to  an  almost  unlimited  number  of  men,  tennis,  etc.,  have  been 
encouraged. 

To  be  convinced  that  this  is  so,  one  has  only  to  look  at  the  great  prosperity  of  the 
Athletic  Association,  the  success  of  the  Harvard  Mott  Haven  teams,  and  the  great 
popularity  and  large  entries  in  the  fall,  winter,  and  spring  athletic  contests.  Wher- 
ever, in  short,  the  scientific  accuracy  with  which  any  game  comes  to  be  played  debars 
from  enjoyable  exercise  the  general  student,  for  whose  benefit  all  sports  ought  to  be, 
that  scientific  accuracy  has  to  be  given  up. 

All  exercise  at  college  is  for  the  purpose  of  keeping  body  and  mind  in  fit  condition 
for  study.  When  the  means  to  this  result  become  an  end,  then  sport  is  abused  and 
reform  is  necessary.  In  short,  the  present  policy  of  Harvard  is  that  there  should 
be  more  sport  and  fewer  "sports"  about  the  college.  The  encouragement  given  to 
boating  here  is  often  advanced  to  show  that  the  acts  of  the  committee  are  inconsist- 
ent. The  explanation  is  this :  the  real  interest  of  the  college  in  boating  centers  in 
the  class  races.  Each  class  has  its  own  crew,  from  which  the  'varsity  draws  its  ma- 
terial, and  thus  affords  exercise  to  many  men.  But  the  class  nines  and  the  class  elevens 
exist  only  in  name.  Everything  centers  in  the  'varsity  nine  or  eleven  and  in  the  contest 
with  Yale.  •  If  the  interest  were  centered  in  contests  between  evenly-matched  nines 
or  elevens  from  the  different  classes,  brighter  days  would  dawn  for  foot  ball  and  base 
ball  at  Harvard. 

Indeed,  the  dissatisfaction  with  the  athletic  committee,  when  examined  closely, 
seems  to  arise  wholly  from  the  popular  jealousy  of  Yale  and  the  disappointment  of 
men  who  hoped  to  win  popularity  among  their  fellows  by  helping  to  gain  victories 
over  a  rival  college.  But  the  committee  treats  with  supreme  indifference  the  ques- 
tion whether  Yale  is  to  be  beaten  or  not,  and  gives  its  attention  wholly  to  making 
enjoyable  exercise  attainable  by  every  student  of  the  college,  and  it  is  more  anxious 
to  give  this  enjoyable  exercise  to  the  weak  than  to  the  strong. 

One  word  about  professionals.  What  is  a  professional?  He  is  a  man  who  depends 
upon  the  exercise  of  his  specialty  to  make  a  living.  Such  a  man  has  frequently  as- 
sociations which  unfit  him  to  come  in  contact  with  young  men  in  college.  A  man 
who  teaches  only,  and  who  is  sober  and  honest,  would  not  be  ranked  as  a  "profes- 
sional." This  is  the  general  rule  of  employment  of  coaches  and  trainers  of  Harvard. 

From  the  data  here  given  it  is  easy  to  see  what  will  be  the  future  of  Harvard  ath- 
letics. If,  as  it  is  hoped,  every  man,  no  matter  how  small  or  weak,  can  have  plenty 
of  enjoyable  exercise,  then  this  future  will  be  bright  indeed. 

We  have  now  traced  in  outline  the  growth  and  development  of  gym- 
nastics, military  drill,  and  athletics,  so  far  as  the  principal  institutions 
of  superior  instruction  in  the  United  States  are  concerned.  Very  few  of 
such  institutions  combine  these  three  features  in  their  course  of  phys- 
ical training,  as  was  the  case  in  Fellenberg's  schools,  at  Hofwyl,  early 
in  the  century.  At  Cornell  University,  however,  military  and  gym- 
nastic drill  are  required  of  certain  classes  of  male  students,  and  calis- 
thenics are  obligatory  on  the  female  students. 

659 


132 


CIRCULARS    OF    INFORMATION   FOR    1885. 


PHYSICAL  EDUCATION  FOR  SCHOLASTIC  WOMEN. 

ASSOCIATION  OF   COLLEGIATE   ALUMNJE. 

The  schools  and  colleges  for  women  are,  as  a  class,  not  so  well  organ- 
ized on  the  side  of  physical  training  as  are  those  for  young  men.  That 
the  physical  education  of  women  is  likely  to  receive  more  intelligent 
attention  than  has  been  the  case  hitherto,  may  be  inferred  from  the 
appended  circular  of  the  Association  of  Collegiate  Alumnae. 

Physical  education. — The  members  of  the  Association  of  Collegiate  Alumnae  have  had 
their  attention  drawn  very  forcibly  to  the  present  need  for  physical  education  among 
the  women  in  our  universities  and  colleges.  They  fully  believe  that  college  educa- 
tion per  se  is  physically  beneficial,  and  that  college  statistics  show  an  average  of 
health  among  women  students  higher  than  that  among  women  at  large ;  but  they  also 
realize  that  the  physical  status  of  American  women  of  the  educated  class  is  painfully 
low,  and  they  believe  that  the  colleges  ought  to  be  among  the  first  to  take  measures 
against  this  dangerous  deterioration  of  physique.  The  following  schedule,  however, 
shows  how  fragmentary  has  been  the  work  done  hitherto  in  the  nine  institutions  rep- 
resented in  the  association : 


Lectures  on  physiology. 

Lectures 
on 
hygiene. 

Gymna- 
sinm. 

Calisthen- 
ics (under 
supervi- 
sion). 

Physician. 

Hospital 
and 
nurse. 

Voluntary 
boat  in  e, 
skating, 
&c.  (Lake.) 

Oberlin  

Oberlin  .  .  . 

Oberlin  .  .  . 

Vassar  

Vassar  

Vassar  .  .  . 

Vassar    .. 

Vassar  

Vassar 

Cornell       

Cornell 

Cornell 

Michigan    

Wisconsin. 

Smith  

Smith  

Smith  

Smith  

Wellesley  . 

Wellesley. 

Wellesley  . 

Wellesley  . 

Welleslev. 

Wesleyan  

Wesleyan  . 

Vassar,  Smith,  and  Wellesley  are  conducted  on  the  dormitory  system,  Smith  main- 
taining separate  "  cottage  "  dormitories,  and  Wellesley  giving  choice  of  large  or  small 
buildings. 

Oberlin,  Wisconsin,  Cornell,  and  Wesleyan  do  not  require  students  to  board  in  col- 
lege buildings. 

Michigan  and  Boston  do  not  provide  boarding  places. 

One  hour  of  physical  exercise  daily  is  required  of  students  by  Vassar  and  Wellesley. 

A  knowledge  of  elementary  physiology  is  required  for  admission  by  Cornell. 

The  attainment  of  a  certain  standard  of  health  is  required  for  admission  by  Wellesley. 

In  view  of  these  facts,  tke  members  of  this  association,  as  women  college  graduates, 
most  earnestly  and  respectfully  urge  the  following  suggestions  upon  those  interested 
in  the  higher  education  of  women,  and  especially  (1)  upon  parents,  (2)  upon  the  gov- 
erning bodies  of  institutions  which  grant  degrees  to  women,  and  (3)  upon  the  women 
studying  in  these  institutions. 


The  members  of  the  association  are  convinced  that  the  low  standard  of  health 
among  women  in  and  after  college  life  is  largely  due  to  their  common  lack  of  physi- 
cal training  and  disregard  of  the  laws  of  health  before  they  enter  college.  At  six- 
teen it  is  often  too  late  to  undo  all  the  mistakes  made  during  the  most  important 
years  of  a  girl's  physical  life.  They  therefore  wish  to  call  the  careful  attention  of 
parents  everywhere  to  the  following  evils  among  school-girls,  which  threaten  every 
interest  of  educated  women. 
660 


PHYSICAL    TRAINING    IN    AMERICAN    COLLEGES.  133 

(1)  Social  dissipation  and  excitement,  which  is  neither  amusement  nor  recreation. 
Girls  are  too  often  stimulated  to  shine  socially  and  intellectually  at  the  same  time. 

A  mother  proves  her  daughter's  perfect  health  by  saying,  "  She  has  been  able  to  go 
to  parties  or  entertainments  four  or  five  evenings  a  week  all  winter,  and  she  stands 
at  the  head  of  her  class ! " 

(2)  Habitual  loss  of  sufficient  and  healthy  sleep. 

In  a  New  York  Academy,  a  class  of  sixty  girls,  between  the  ages  of  twelve  and 
eighteen,  chanced  to  be  asked  by  a  recent  visitor  for  the  time  they  retired  the  night 
before.  The  average  was  found  to  be  twenty  minutes  before  midnight ;  but  no  sur- 
prise was  manifested  by  teachers  nor  regret  by  pupils. 

(3)  Irregularity  and  haste  in  taking  food,  the  use  of  confectionery  in  the  evening, 
and  the  omission  of  breakfast. 

The  principal  of  a  large  girls'  school  in  Philadelphia  lately  said  that  so  many  habit- 
ually came  to  school  without  having  taken  sufficient  breakfast,  and  taking  little  or 
no  lunch,  that  he  had  been  compelled,  in  order  to  obtain  good  mental  work,  to  have 
a  warm  lunch  furnished,  and  to  insist  upon  the  scholars  taking  it  in  the  middle  of  the 
morning. 

(4)  Tight,  heavy,  and  insufficient  clothing,  which  frightfully  increases  the  tenden- 
cies to  consumption  and  spinal  diseases. 

A  physician  of  wide  experience  confidently  states  that  this  cause  alone  has  inca- 
pacitated more  women  than  over-study  and  over- work  of  all  kinds. 

(5)  The  lack  of  sufficient  out-door  exercise.    When  a  proper  amount  of  time  is  de- 
voted to  such  exercise,  no  time  will  be  left  for  over-study. 

(6)  The  ambition  of  parents  and  daughters  to  accomplish  much  in  little  time,  which 
sends  students  to  college  either  hurriedly  and  imperfectly  prepared,  or  with  a  thorough 
preparation  gained  at  the  expense  of  health. 

(7)  The  usual  postponement  of  instruction  in  the  laws  of  physiology  and  hygiene  to 
a  college  course.     Thus,  daughters  go  out  from  their  mother's  care  wholly  ignorant 
of  the  common  laws  by  which  they  may  increase  and  preserve  the  health  upon  which 
every  hope  and  ambition  depends. 

II. 

The  members  of  this  association  believe  that  these  faults  in  home  and  school  train- 
ing, as  well  as  those  found  in  college  schemes,  can  be  reached  most  effectually  through 
the  colleges.  And,  while  recognizing  the  efforts  already  made  in  this  direction,  they 
respectfully  recommend  to  the  consideration  of  college-governing  bodies  the  follow- 
ing remedies  for  existing  evils: 

(1)  The  introduction  of  a  consistent,  thorough,  and  scientific  course  of  physical 
education  for  women. 

(2)  The  appointment  of  a  thoroughly  competent  woman  as  an  instructor  in  this  de- 
partment, who  shall  superintend  the  gymnasium,  give  practical  courses  of  lectures, 
and  be,  so  far  as  possible,  responsible  for  the  general  health  of  the  women  in  her 
classes. 

Where  the  dormitory  system  obtains,  the  appointment  of  a  resident  physician  is 
also  urged. 

(3)  The  provision  of  an  adequately  equipped  gymnasium. 

(4)  The  provision  of  one  or  more  courses  of  lectures  by  non-resident  specialists  on 
physiology,  hygiene,  sanitation,  heredity,  athletics,  gymnastics,  etc. 

(5)  The  provision  of  special  libraries  on  subjects  pertaining  to  physical  education. 

(6)  Careful  study  in  the  construction  of  buildings  for  recitation  and  dormitory  pur- 
poses, with  special  reference  to  counteracting  the  acknowledged  evils  of  the  dormi- 
tory system. 

(7)  The  requirement  (whenever  practicable)  that  candidates  for  admission  shall 
reach  a  certain  standard  of  attainment  iu  physical  education.     Physical  health  is 
already  required  for  admission  by  Wellesley  College,  and  a  knowledge  of  physiology 
by  Cornell  University. 

661 


134  CIRCULARS    OF    INFORMATION   FOR    1885. 

III. 

The  women  studying  in  our  colleges  are  urged  by  the  women  graduates  of  these 
colleges — 

(1)  To  bear  constantly  in  mind  in  their  own  work  the  fact  that  the  best  intellectual 
results  cannot  be  attained  without  perfect  physical  health. 

(2)  To  maintain  a  constant  and  sensible  watch  over  their  own  habits  as  regards 
sleep,  exercise,  food,  dress,  etc.     Failure  to  take  the  requisite  amount  of  sleep,  food, 
or  exercise,  should  be  lamented  as  much  as  failure  in  recitation. 

(3)  To  form  athletic  associations  for  the  promotion  of  wholesome  exercise  and  the 
stimulation  of  public  opinion. 

(4)  To  collect  comparative  statistics  relating  to  the  age,  height,  weight,  size  of 
waist,  breadth  of  chest,  weight  of  clothing,  etc.,  of  women  college  students.     Such 
statistics  should  be  taken  at  regular  intervals  throughout  the  college  course.    As 
taken  by  Dr.  Sargent,  of   Harvard  University,  in  his  ladies'  gymnasium  at  Cam- 
bridge, they  have  proved  valuable  as  well  as  interesting. 

The  association  hopes  to  publish  a  series  of  short,  practical  monographs  on  these 
and  similar  subjects  at  some  future  time.  Meanwhile,  information  in  regard  to  the 
practical  working  of  these  suggestions,  many  of  which  are  already  in  operation,  may 
be  obtained  on  application  to  any  of  the  officers  of  the  association:  President,  Mrs. 
J.  F.  Bashford,  University  of  Wisconsin,  Auburndale,  Mass.;  vice-president.  Miss  F. 
M.  Cashing,  Vassa.r  College,  8  Walnut  street,  Boston,  Mass.;  secretary,  Miss  Marion 
Talbot,  Boston  University,  66  Marlborough  street,  Boston  ;  treasurer,  Miss  Margaret 
Hicks,  Cornell  University,  Cambridge,  Mass.;  directors,  Miss  A.  E.  F.  Morgan,  Ober- 
lin  College,  Wellesley,  Mass.;  Mrs.  E.  H.  Richards,  Vassar  College,  Jamaica  Plain, 
Mass.  Miss  A.  E.  Freeman,  University  of  Michigan,  Wellesley,  Mass. ;  Miss  K.  E. 
Morris,  Smith  College,  Hartford,  Vt. ;  Miss  H.  M.  Peirce,  Wellesley  College,  Newton 
Center,  Mass. 

PHYSICAL    TRAINING  AT  WELLESLEY    COLLEGE. 

Wellesley  College,  in  Massachusetts,  has  a  more  highly  organized 
department  of  physical  training  than  any  other  institution  at  present 
devoted  to  the  education  of  women.  The  Sargent  system  is  followed 
and  out-of-door  games  are  encouraged.  Since  1880  all  applicants  for 
admission  have  been  required  to  present  a  certificate  from  some  reputa- 
ble physician  that  they  were  physically  fit  to  undertake  the  course  of 
study  prescribed  in  the  institution.  Out  of  485  who  presented  such  cer- 
tificates in  1882-'83,  23  were  found  within  nine  months  to  be  unable  to 
continue  their  studies  on  account  of  ill  health.  During  the  same  year 
470  students  underwent  physical  examination  touching  the  condition  of 
"  spine,  lungs,  and  heart,"  made  by  Miss  E.  H.  Jones,  M.D.,  the  resi- 
dent physician.  Of  these,  32  were  found  to  have  "  narrow  chests  with 
poorly  developed  lungs ;"  9  had  valvular  disease  of  the  heart ;  2  had 
hypertrophy  of  the  heart ;  16  had  curvature  of  the  spine ;  and  7  had 
spinal  irritation. 

No  woman's  college  in  America,  however,  has  a  gymnasium  which 
approaches  in  costliness  and  completeness  that  of  Bryn  Mawr  College, 
soon  to  be  opened,  to  which  allusion  has  been  made  already. 

662 


PHYSICAL    TRAINING    IN   AMERICAN    COLLEGES.  135 

LNSTBUCTION  IN  HYGIENE. 
SUGGESTION  OF  THE  APOSTLE  ELIOT. 

Lectures  upon  health  topics  were  not  uncommon  in  American  col- 
leges long  before  any  systematic  effort  was  made  by  any  of  them  to 
provide  its  students  with  practical  facilities  for  living  in  obedience  to 
the  laws  therein  enunciated.  Even  here  American  educators  cannot 
lay  claim  to  originality,  for  in  Basedow's  Philanthropinum  at  Dessau, 
in  1774,  lectures  were  given  by  a  physician  on  human  anatomy  and 
physiology.  It  is  not  possible  for  the  writer  to  state  when  such  lectures 
were  first  given  to  American  students;  but  it  is  safe  to  surmise  that 
their  date  is  not  earlier  than  the  year  1647,  when  the  following  rather 
vague  suggestion  of  a  course  of  medical  instruction  for  his  Indian  schol- 
ars was  penned  by  the  Apostle  Eliot.  "I  have  thought  in  my  heart," 
he  wrote  to  Thomas  Shepard,  the  pious  minister  of  Cambridge  in  Mas- 
sachusetts, "that  it  were  a  singular  good  work  if  the  Lord  would  stir 
up  the  hearts  of  some  or  other  of  his  people  in  England  to  give  some 
maintenance  toward  some  schoole  or  collegiate  exercise  this  way,  wherein 
there  should  be  anatomies  and  other  instructions  that  way." 

LECTURES  AT   HARVARD. 

In  1781,  Dr.  J.  Warren,  father  of  Dr.  J.  C.  Warren,  alluded  to  in  the 
early  part  of  this  paper  as  a  lecturer  on  health  to  the  students  of  Har- 
vard College,  at  the  request  of  the  Boston  Medical  Society,  "  demon- 
strated a  course  of  anatomical  lectures  at  the  hospital  in  Boston."  This 
course  was  "  quite  public,"  and  "some  of  the  students  of  Harvard  Col- 
lege were  permitted  to  attend."  In  1784  the  Harvard  Medical  School 
was  opened  at  Cambridge.  Its  first  quarters  proving  unfit,  the  Holden 
Chapel  was  fitted  up,  and  lectures  in  anatomy,  surgery,  and  materia 
medica  were  delivered  there.  "The  number  of  medical  students  who 
attended  was  small,  but  as  the  president  permitted  the  two  elder  classes 
to  attend  the  lectures  the  rooms  were  well  filled." 

It  is  not  clearly  shown  in  such  statements  as  have  come  to  our  notice 
that  instruction  on  the  nature  of  the  human  body  has  regularly  been 
provided  for  Harvard  students  since  the  time  of  those  lectures  alluded 
to  as  having  been  delivered  in  Holden  Chapel;  but  it  is  stated  in 
Quincy's  "History  of  Harvard  University"  that  in  1810,  when  the  med- 
ical school  was  removed  to  Boston,  "the  medical  professors  were  re- 
quired to  deliver  an  annual  course  at  Cambridge,  adapted  to  resident 
graduates  and  the  Senior  class  of  undergraduates."  Dr.  J.  C.  Warren, 
in  1825,  and  Dr.  James  Jackson,  in  1830,  were  in  the  habit  of  giving 
such  lectures.  It  is  a  part  of  Dr.  Sargent's  duty  at  the  present  day  to 
deliver  lectures  on  personal  hygiene  and  physical  training  to  the  stu- 
pents  of  the  university. 

663 


136  CIRCULARS    OF   INFORMATION   FOR    1885. 

LECTURES  AT  DARTMOUTH. 

The  first  published  announcement  of  the  course  of  instruction  at 
Dartmouth  College  is  contained  in  its  catalogue  for  1822.  From  it  we 
learn  that  the  members  of  the  two  upper  classes  were  "  permitted  to 
attend  all  the  lectures  of  the  medical  professors  by  paying  a  small  fee." 
In  1825  this  fee  amounted  to  67  cents  a  term  for  Juniors,  and  to  twice 
that  sum  for  Seniors.  At  present  the  Freshmen  at  Dartmouth  are  re- 
quired to  attend  six  lectures,  and  the  Seniors  twelve  lectures,  delivered 
by  the  professor  of  science  and  practice  of  medicine  in  the  medical 
school. 

INSTRUCTION  IN   HYGIENE   AT   OTHER   COLLEGES. 

Colleges  of  the  present  day  very  generally  aim  to  give  at  least  text- 
book instruction  in  "anatomy,  physiology,  and  hygiene."  At  Amherst, 
Dr.  Hitchcock  instructs,  both  by  lectures  and  recitations,  the  two  lower 
classes  in  these  subjects,  especial  stress  being  laid  upon  hygiene,  and 
such  has  been  his  custom  during  almost  all  of  his  term  of  office,  i.  e., 
since  1861.  At  Cornell  University  careful  provision  has  been  made 
ever  since  its  foundation,  in  1868,  for  the  study  of  human  anatomy, 
physiology,  and  hygiene.  At  Cornell,  moreover,  applicants  for  admis- 
sion are  required  to  pass  an  examination  in  physiology. 

There  is  such  a  variety  of  usage  in  regard  to  the  character  and  amount 
of  instruction  in  hygiene  in  our  principal  colleges  that  the  facts  con- 
cerning it,  so  far  as  the  inquiries  made  by  the  writer  have  elicited  any 
information  on  this  head,  may  best  be  set  forth  in  tabular  form. 
664 


PHYSICAL    TRAINING    IN   AMERICAN    COLLEGES. 


137 


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All  of  3d  yr.  r;  prep,  and  Eng.  o. 
354  ;  169  m,  185  /. 

15r;  lOo. 
Nearly  all  Freshmen  in  university. 
All  Sophomores. 

150;  861styr.,  64  4th  yr. 
250  m  in  1883. 

15  m  and  20  /,  r  ;  20  m  and  25/  o. 

6  3d  yr.  ;  5m,1  f,  r. 
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Name  and  title  of  teacher. 

..  E.  Hitchcock,  sr.,  M.  D.,  M.  A.,  prof, 
giene  and  physical  education. 

..  Prof,  of  natural  history  
.  .  J.  Lindahl,  Ph.  D.,  prof,  of  natural  scie 

.  .  None  reported  

An 

.  .  L.  A.  Lee,  B.  A.,  prof,  of  geology  aud  bi 

.  .  L.  W.  Sperry,  M.  D.,  prof,  of  geology,  zc 
and  physiology. 

.  G.  W.  Hubbard,  M.  D.,  lecturer;  R.F 
M.  D.,  teacher  of  physiology. 

..  A.  W.  Smith,  D.  D.  S  

.  .  B.  G.  "Wilder,  M.  D.,  prof,  of  physiology 
parative  anatomy,  and  zoology.  v 

.  .  C.  P.  Frost,  M.  D.,  prof,  of  science  and  p 
of  medicine  (Dart.  Med.  School). 

Prnf  Rator  \T  Tl 

.  .  Miss  L.  M.  Saundereon  (  for  1883-'84)  ,  ins 

..  F.  A.  Chase,  A.  M.,  prof,  of  physical  sci 

.  .  D.  A.  Sargent,  A.  B.,  M.  D  ,  asst.  prof,  oi 
cal  training  and  director  of  gymnasil 

..  "W.  A.  Ford,  M.  D.,  instructor  in  p] 
training.  (?) 

.  .  H.  "W.  Parker,  A.  B.,  prof,  of  natural  hie 

..  E.  M.  flartwoll,  Ph.  D.,  M.  D.,  instru< 
physical  culture,  1882-'83. 

..|  E.  M.  Shelton,  B.  Sc.,  professor  

Location. 

Amherst,  Mass  

Meadville.Pa  
Rockford.  Ill  

Beloit,  "Wis  

P.Ajt/m  \fn«<3 

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Springfield,  Mo  

Nashville,  Tenn  
Cambridge,  Mass  .  .  . 

!  Haver  ford,  Pa  

\  Grinnell.  Iowa  
Baltimore,  Md  

.;  Manhattan,  Kans... 

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Name  of  institution 

Amherst  College  

Allegheny  College  
Augustana  College  — 

Bcloit  College  

Bowdoin  College  

Carleton  College  
Central  Tennessee  Coll 

Central  University  .  .  . 
Cornell  University  

Dartmouth  College  — 

T>.»  11.,  ,,  ,,-  TTr,;^n^aU.- 

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Harvard  University  .. 

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Iowa  College  
Johns  Hopkins  Univer 

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CIRCULARS    OF    INFORMATION    FOR    1885. 


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Charles  McJntyre,  A.  M.,  M.  D.,  lecturer  OB 
hygiene. 

J.  Green,  M.  D.,  lecturer  

J.  M.  Tyler,  B.  A.,  prof,  biology  (Am.  College)  . 

V.  C.  Vaughan,  Ph.  D.,  M.  D.,  professor  of 
physiological  and  pathological  chemistry. 

C.  N.  Htwitt,  M.  D.,  prof,  of  public  health,  and 
Sec'y  State  Board  of  Health. 

i  Some  one  of  instrnntors  ._ 

;- 
• 

J.  S.  Schenck,  M.  D.,  LL.  D.,  lecturer  (?)  .... 
E.  T.  Nelson,  Ph.  D.,  professor  

J.  B.  Scott  will  lecture  on  anatomy,  physiolo- 
gy, and  hygieno,  1883-'64. 

Miss  Ruth  lloppin,  A.  R.  ,  instructor  
J.  J.  Brown,  LL.D.,  prof.chemistry  and  physics 
H.  Nicholson,  B.  A.,  prof,  of  natural  history  .  .  . 
Chairman  of  Faeiilt.v.  . 

Hygieno  not  formally  taught.  The  entire 
training  is  based  on  personal  hygiene. 

Mary  E.  Allen,  M.  D.,  professor  and  resident 
physician. 

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PHYSICAL    TRAINING   IN    AMERICAN   COLLEGES. 


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PHYSICAL    TRAINING    IN    AMERICAN   COLLEGES.  145 

DEf.  BOWDI'ICH  ON   THE   TEACHING  OF  HYGIENE. 

In  1876  Dr.  H.  I.  Bowditch,  of  Boston,  Mass.,  delivered  the  Centen- 
nial Address  before  the  International  Medical  Congress,  in  Philadelphia, 
on  Public  Hygiene  in  America.  In  the  appendix  to  the  volume  in 
which  the  address  is  found,  Dr.  Bowditch  gives  summary  statements 
setting  forth  the  results  of  his  correspondence  with  (a)  sixty-two  Ameri- 
can universities  and  colleges,  and  with  (&)  twenty-three  medical  colleges, 
relative  to  the  amount  of  instruction  given  by  these  institutions  in  pub- 
lic and  private  hygiene  and  physical  culture.  Under  the  first  head 
Dr.  Bowditch's  conclusions  are  as  follows : 

(1)  Instruction  on  public  hygiene  and  state  preventive  medicine  is  wofully  neg- 
lected. 

(2)  On  private  hygiene  only  about  one-third  of  the  colleges  give  any  instruction. 

(3)  A  full  special  course  of  instruction  on  either  of  the  above  themes  is  almost  un- 
known. 

(4)  Incidental}}/,  in  connection  with  some  other  not  necessarily  allied  subject,  and 
therefore  inefficiently,  the  topics  are  treated  of  by  about  three-fourths  of  the  colleges, 
while  one-fourth  of  them  do  not  even  perform  this  small  duty  in  this  most  important 
matter.     Meanwhile,  although  the  instructors  of  the  colleges  thus  neglect  important 
duties,  the  youths,  of  their  own  free  will,  and  at  times  lately  with  the  aid  and  coun- 
sel of  the  college  governments,  have  commenced  athletic  sports.     This  will  gradually 
force  the  colleges  to  take,  on  their  own  parts,  a  higher  position. 

His  conclusions  under  the  second  head,  i.  e.,  as  regards  medical  col- 
leges, are — 

(1)  Only  a  little  more  than  one-third  of  the  colleges  pay  any  attention  to  public  or 
private  hygiene. 

(2)  A  still  smaller  proportion  notice  state  preventive  medicine. 

(3)  Only  about  one-fifth  have  special  professors  and  special  courses  in  hygiene. 

(4)  About  one-half  say  they  have  subsidiary  teaching  given  by  various  professors 
in  other  departments. 

• 

PRESENT   TEACHING  OF    HYGIENE  IN  MEDICAL   COLLEGES. 

The  Report  of  the  Commissioner  of  Education  for  1882-'83  enumerates 
eighty  schools  of  medicine  of  the  class  known  as  "regular."  About 
one-half  of  them,  as  shown  in  the  following  table,  advertise  to  teach 
something  of  hygiene  to  candidates  for  their  diplomas.  An  inspection 
of  this  and  the  preceding  table  affords  evidence  that  there  has  been 
some  slight  improvement  in  the  amount  of  attention  given  to  hygiene 
in  colleges  and  medical  schools  since  Dr.  Bowditch's  investigation  in 

1876. 

673 
5068— No.  5 10 


146 


CIRCULARS    OF    INFORMATION   FOR    1885. 


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148 


CIRCULARS    OF    INFORMATION    FOR    1885. 


TABLK  Xo.  19.  —  Nature  and  amount  of  instruction  in  hygiene  given  in  American  medical  schools  for  1882-'83  —  Continued. 

Books  recom- 
mended. 

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::::•:  5    :      ;      :    :    :     a 

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23.  Northwestern  Medical  College  of  Saint 
24  Saint  Joseph  Medical  College  
25.  Missouri  Medical  Collet™  ... 

Southern  Medical  College  . 
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150  CIRCULARS   OF   INFORMATION   FOR   1885. 

The  foregoing  table  is  compiled  from  as  complete  a  set  of  catalogues 
of  medical  schools  as  was  accessible  to  the  compiler  of  this  Keport.  It 
appears,  however,  from  the  conspectus  of  the  medical  schools  of  America, 
including  those  of  Canada,  published  by  the  Illinois  State  Board  of 
Health,  received  as  we  go  to  press,  that  in  1882-'83  there  were  42  Amer- 
ican medical  schools  having  "chairs"  of  hygiene.  Of  these,  32  were 
regular,  7  homeopathic,  and  3  eclectic.  In  1S83-'S4  the  number  had 
increased  to  80,  of  which  63  were  regular,  8  homeopathic,  7  eclectic, 
and  2  physio-medical.  So  large  an  increase  in  "chairs  of  hygiene"  is 
surprising.  If  they  are  indeed  "  chairs,"  and  not  stools,  it  is  encourag- 
ing as  well.  We  are  inclined  to  suspect  that  many  of  them  have  been 
manufactured  to  order,  on  account  of  the  action  of  the  Illinois  State 
Board  of  Health,  whose  schedule  of  minimum  requirements,  adopted 
in  1880  as  its  standard  for  determining  the  status  of  medical  colleges 
under  the  Medical  Practice  Act  of  that  State,  took  effect  at  the  close  of 
the  lecture  sessions  of  18S2-'83.  Of  the  ten  branches  of  medical  science 
included  in  that  schedule,  hygiene  is  one,  being  placed  ninth  on  the  list. 

THE   STUDY   OF   HYGIENE  IN   SECONDARY  SCHOOLS. 

Elementary  physiology,  or,  as  it  is  usually  entitled,  "anatomy,  physi- 
ology, and  hygiene,"  is  very  generally  given  a  place  in  the  courses  of 
study  laid  down  for  high  schools,  academies,  and  normal  schools.  If  we 
were  to  base  an  opinion  simply  on  the  statements  of  catalogues  and 
schedules,  we  might  believe  that  hygiene,  under  the  name  of  physiology, 
received  ample  attention  in  our  secondary  schools.  But  if  any  one  who 
knows  the  difference  between  modern  and  mediaeval  notions  regarding 
the  nature  and  needs  of  the  human  body  will  glance  at  the  text-books 
used,  and  inform  himself  as  to  the  antiquated  and  unreal  methods  of  in- 
struction, he  will  cease  to  wonder  at  the  unsatisfactory  results  thus  far 
attained  in  attempting  to  teach  the  laws  of  health.  It  would  be  diffi- 
cult to  devise  more  unscientific  and  unnatural  educational  methods  and 
practices  than  those  which  obtain  in  a  very  large  proportion  of  the  med- 
ical schools  of  the  country.  When  medical  men  are  so  generally  trained 
after  vicious  methods  and  amid  unsanitary  surroundings,  it  is  too  much 
to  expect  that  the  ordinary  school  committee-man  and  the  average 
teacher  will  be  anxious  or  able  to  work  intelligently  and  successfully 
for  the  natural  and  healthy  mental  and  bodily  development  of  those 
intrusted  to  their  charge.  Of  the  J19  normal  schools  classed  as  public 
in  the  Report  of  the  Commissioner  of  Education,  at  least  75,  in  1882, 
specify  physiology  and  hygiene  in  their  courses  of  study.  Less  than 
one-quarter  of  them  require  gymnastics  of  their  pupils. 

REFORMS  NEEDED. 

The  principles  of  hygiene — and  hygiene  is  simply  applied  physiology— 
cannot  be  clearly  and  intelligently  taught,  much  less  authoritatively 
enforced,  either  in  superior  or  secondary  schools,  KO  long  as  the  main  de- 

G78 


PHYSICAL   TRAINING   IN   AMERICAN   COLLEGES.  151 

pendence  of  teachers  is  upou  lesson  cramming  from  text-books  burdened 
with  antiquated  statements  and  exploded  hypotheses.  But  much  more 
is  demanded  in  the  domain  of  school  and  college  hygiene,  using  the 
term  broadly,  than  would  be  embraced  in  simply  reforming  methods  of 
instruction.  There  is  the  additional  need,  not  only  of  sanitary  inspec- 
tion and  regulation  of  schools  and  scholars,  but  also  of  a  thorough 
overhauling  and  general  disinfection  of  the  courses  of  instruction  and 
of  the  rules  and  regulations  for  the  conduct  and  control  of  teachers  and 
taught.  It  is  within  the  mark  to  say  that  the  majority  of  our  educa- 
tional schemes  and  practices,  especially  in  the  field  of  female  educa- 
tion, are  not  in  harmony  with  the  laws  and  facts  of  modern  physiology 
and  psychology.  The  need  of  such  harmony  is  beginning  to  be  appre- 
hended. To  bring  about  a  clear  and  general  recognition  of  its  need, 
not  to  speak  of  its  realization,  will  require  a  vast  amount  of  patient 
and  skilled  labor  on  the  part  of  the  growing  baud  of  writers  and  work- 
ers who  are  concerning  themselves  alike  about  the  physical  and  the 
mental  well-being  of  the  student  class. 

OPINION   OF  PROFESSOR   HUXLEY  ON    ELEMENTARY  INSTRUCTION  IN 

PHYSIOLOGY. 

The  following  opinion  expressed  by  Professor  Huxley,  in  an  address 
on  "Elementary  Instruction  in  Physiology,"  seems  pertinent  and  weighty 
in  this  connection : 

It  is,  I  think,  eminently  desirable  that  the  hygienist  and  the  physician  should  find 
something  in  the  public  mind  to  which  they  can  appeal ;  some  little  stock  of  univer- 
sally acknowledged  truths,  which  may  serve  as  a  foundation  for  their  warnings,  and 
predispose  toward  an  intelligent  obedience  to  their  recommendations. 

Listening  to  ordinary  talk  about  health,  disease,  and  death,  one  is  often  led  to  en- 
tertain a  doubt  whether  the  speakers  believe  that  the  course  of  natural  causation 
runs  as  smoothly  in  the  human  body  as  elsewhere. 

Hence,  I  think,  arises  the  want  of  heartiness  of  belief  in  the  value  of  knowledge 
respecting  the  laws  of  health  and  disease,  and  of  the  foresight  and  care  to  which 
knowledge  is  the  essential  preliminary,  which  is  so  often  noticeable,  and  a  corres- 
ponding laxity  and  carelessness  in  practice,  the  results  of  which  are  too  frequently 
lamentable. 

I  am  not  sure  that  the  feeling  expressed  in  the  doctrine  that  all  disease  is  brought 
about  by  the  direct  and  special  interference  of  the  Deity  does  not  lie  at  the  bottom 
of  the  minds  of  a  great  many  people  who  yet  would  vigorously  object  to  give  a  verbal 
assent  to  the  doctrine  itself.  However  this  may  be,  the  main  point  is,  that  sufficient 
knowledge  has  now  been  acquired  of  vital  phenomena  to  justify  the  assertion  that 
the  notion  that  there  is  anything  exceptional  about-these  phenomena  receives  not  a 
particle  of  support  from  any  known  fact.  On  the  contrary,  there  is  a  vast  and  in- 
creasing mass  of  evidence  that  birth  and  death,  health  and  disease,  are  as  much  parts 
of  the  ordinary  stream  of  events  as  the  rising  and  setting  of  the  sun,  or  the  changes 
of  the  moon  ;  and  that  the  living  body  is  a  mechanism,  the  proper  working  of  which 
we  deem  health ;  its  disturbance,  disease  ;  its  stoppage,  death.  The  activity  of  this 
mechanism  is  dependent  upon  many  and  complicated  conditions,  some  of  which  are 
hopelessly  beyond  our  control,  while  others  are  readily  accessible,  and  are  capable  of 
being  indefinitely  modified  by  our  own  actions.  The  business  of  the  hygienist  and  of 
the  physician  is  to  know  the  range  of  these  modifiable  conditions,  and  how  to  influ- 

079 


152  CIRCULARS    OF    INFORMATION    FOR    1885. 

ence  them  toward  the  maintenance  of  health  and  the  prolongation  of  life;  and  the 
business  of  the  general  public  is  to  give  an  intelligent  assent  and  a  ready  obedience, 
based  upon  that  assent,  to  the  rules  laid  down  for  their  guidance  by  such  experts. 
But  an  intelligent  assent  is  an  assent  based  upon  knowledge,  and  the  knowledge  here 
in  question  means  an  acquaintance  with  the  elements  of  physiology. 

From  our  point  of  view  it  is  quite  as  necessary,  though  in  a  different 
degree,  for  the  educator,  as  for  the  hygienist  and  the  physician,  "  to 
know  the  range  of  these  modifiable  conditions"  to  which  Professor 
Huxley  alludes.  Those  who  contemn  or  ignore  the  knowledge  of  such 
conditions  and  the  means  of  influencing  them,  contemn  or  ignore  that 
fundamental  attribute  of  human  nature  which  renders  man  capable  of 
self-improvement  and  perfectibility  through  the  exercise  and  training 
of  his  faculties.  We  may,  and  too  often  do,  lose  sight  of  the  interde- 
pendence of  the  mind  and  body  ;  but  none  the  less  is  it  impossible  to 
separate  the  two  and  train  either  independently  of  the  other;  for,  as  was 
well  said  by  Sterne,  "  The  body  and  mind  are  like  a  jerkin  and  its  lining. 
If  you  rumple  the  one  you  rumple  the  other." 

CONCLUDING  REMARKS  AND  SUGGESTIONS. 

OUTLOOK  FOR  THE  FUTURE. 

We  have  now  considered  the  peculiar  features  of  the  origin  and  devel- 
opment in  American  schools  and  colleges  of  physical  training  in  its  three 
principal  branches,  viz.,  gymnastics,  military  drill,  and  athletics,  and 
have  endeavored  to  indicate  the  nature  and  extent  of  the  instruction 
undertaken  in  the  science  of  personal  hygiene.  The  present  condition 
of  affairs  is  such  as  to  lead  us  to  hope  for  even  better  results  than  those 
attained  within  the  last  twenty-five  years.  College  authorities  and 
patrons  are  very  generally  awake,  or  are  awakening,  to  the  necessity  of 
providing  better  instruction  and  facilities  for  the  physical  training  of 
the  youth  of  either  sex.  With  a  very  few,  but  very  marked,  exceptions, 
however,  our  colleges  have  not  emerged  from  that  stage  of  development 
in  which  the  needs  of  physical  training  are  supposed  to  be  met  by  the 
construction  and  furnishing  of  a  fine  gymnasium  building.  Even  in 
such  institutions  as  have  placed  their  gymnasia  and  their  gymnastics 
under  the  charge  of  a  medical  director,  only  a  beginning  has  been  ef- 
fected toward  organizing  the  department  on  a  broad,  scientific,  and 
thoroughly  educational  basis.  It  is  a  good  thing  to  have  taken  the 
control  of  college  gymnasia  out  of  the  hands  of  ignorant  and  low-toned 
trainers  and  athletes.  Laudable  results  have  already  been  brought  to 
pass  through  putting  the  department  of  physical  education  into  the 
hands  of  educated  medical  men.  But  a  much  more  liberal  outlay  of 
imagination  and  money  than  has  yet  been  expended  in  any  of  our  col- 
leges is  indispensable  to  render  such  departments  thoroughly  and  effi- 
ciently adequate  to  the  demands  that  may  fairly  be  made  upon  them. 
680 


PHYSICAL    TRAINING    IN   AMERICAN   COLLEGES.  153 

QUALIFICATIONS  OF  A  DIRECTOR  OF  A  COLLEGE  GYMNASIUM. 

The  director  of  a  college  gymnasium  should  possess  sufficient  aca- 
demic and  professional  training  to  entitle  him  to  a  place  in  the  Faculty, 
and  to  insure  him  the  respect  of  his  colleagues.  The  supply  to  meet 
even  the  present  demand  for  such  men  is  not  large.  The  director's 
duties  should  be  mainly  those  of  a  friendly  medical,  or  rather  hygienic, 
adviser  of  young  men  in  regard  to  their  habits  of  study,  exercise,  and 
recreation.  He  should  be  expected  to  make  a  close  study  of  the  bodily 
and  mental  peculiarities  of  those  under  his  charge,  not  only  for  the 
purpose  of  diagnosis  in  individual  cases,  but  also  for  the  purpose  of 
contributing  the  results  of  his  observations  toward  the  determination 
of  the  physical  and  mental  constants  of  the  student  class.  The  director 
should  have  a  sufficient  staff  of  assistants  subject  to  his  orders  to  pro- 
vide safe  and  graded  instruction  in  the  principal  gymnastic  and  athletic 
specialties.  It  should  be  within  the  director's  province  to  forbid  men 
to  take  part  in  contests  and  exhibitions,  when,  in  his  judgment,  on  ac- 
count of  insufficient  or  improper  training,  or  because  of  structural  or 
functional  weakness,  such  participation  would  be  likely  to  prove  injuri- 
ous. He  should  also,  by  lectures  or  otherwise,  give  regular  and  genuine 
instruction  in  personal  hygiene. 

PROPOSED   SCHEME   FOR     ORGANIZING  A   COLLEGE    DEPARTMENT    OF 
PERSONAL   HYGIENE   AND  PHYSICAL   TRAINING. 

The  following  may  serve  to  indicate  what,  in  the  opinion  of  the  writer, 
should  be  the  ends  aimed  at  in  the  establishment  and  maintenance  by 
a  college  or  university,  whether  for  men  or  women,  of  a  department  of 
personal  hygiene  and  physical  training. 

Three  special  ends  are  to  be  subserved  in  such  a  department : 

Firstly,  The  instruction  of  students  in  the  laws  of  health,  such  instruc- 
tion to  be  based  upon  an  exposition  of  the  modern  doctrine  of  the  hu- 
man body. 

Secondly,  The  guidance  of  students  in  a  systematic  attempt  to  at- 
tain sound  bodies  and  vigorous  normal  functions  by  means  of  gym- 
nastic exercise,  the  use  of  developing  appliances,  and  the  non-abuse 
of  athletic  sports  and  scholastic  work,  such  guidance  being  based  upon 
a  careful  examination  into  and  study  of  the  bodily  endowments,  consti- 
tutional peculiarities,  and  mental  habits  of  the  individuals  under  guid- 
ance. The  counsel  and  direction  of  the  director  should  be  seconded  by 
the  instruction  of  special  teachers  in  the  principal  branches  of  gymnas- 
tics and  athletics,  such  teachers  to  be  subject  to  his  control  and  super- 
vision. 

Thirdly,  The  scientific  study  of  the  natural  history  "of  the  student  class. 

Toward  the  furtherance  of  these  ends  a  well-equipped  gymnasium  and 

681 


154  CIRCULARS    OF    INFORMATION   FOR    1885. 

ample  and  conveniently-arranged  play-grounds  are  indispensable,  and 
the  director  should  be  expected  to  give — 

(I)  Instruction  (a)  by  means  of  lectures;  (&)  by  marking  out  a  course 
of  reading ;  (c)  by  anatomical  and  physical  demonstrations ;  (d)  by  hold- 
ing examinations.     Undergraduate  students  should  be  required  and 
other  students  allowed  to  attend  such  instruction. 

The  lectures  might  be  grouped  advantageously  as  follows:  (1)  on 
the  nature  and  needs  of  the  human  body,  in  connection  with  demonstra- 
tions (a)  on  the  skeleton,  (6)  with  anatomical  preparations,  and  (c)  by 
means  of  physiological  apparatus ;  (2)  on  the  theory  and  practice  of 
exercise  and  training;  (3)  on  selected  topics  in  public  and  personal 
hygiene  ;  (4)  on  the  aims  and  means  of  modern  medicine,  with  hints 
as  to  the  selection  of  medical  advisers. 

(II)  Guidance,  by  means  of  personal  suggestions,  advice,  and  di- 
rection.   Each  undergraduate  student  should  be  required,  and  all  oth- 
ers encouraged,  to  undergo  a  physical  examination  by  the  director, 
in  order  that  he  may  be  enabled  to  prescribe  such  exercises  and  the  use 
of  such  developing  appliances  and  measures  as  may  be  appropriate  to 
the  special  needs  of  each  individual.    Each  student  should  be  examined 
at  least  twice  a  year,  and  the  results  of  such  examinations  should  be 
carefully  recorded  and  tabulated. 

(III)  By  making  statistical  and  scientific  reports  of  observations 
and  experiments.     The  director  should  record,  analyze,  and  discuss  the 
results  of  his  observations,  measurements,  and  examinations;  and  be 
encouraged  to  investigate  the  problems  appertaining  to  the  develop- 
ment and  maintenance  of  normal  bodily  and  mental  functions  in  mem- 
bers of  the  student  class,  to  the  end  that  physical  education  may  be 
put  upon  a  rational  basis. 

It  is  only  through  a  wise  combination  of  gymnastic  training  and 
athletic  sports  that  the  best  results  can  be  hoped  for  or  attained.  Ath- 
letic sports  can,  if  wisely  managed  and  supervised,  be  made  most  serv- 
iceable in  securing  manliness  and  self-control  to  those  engaging  in 
them.  The  abandonment  of  them  as  a  general  "elective  course"  to 
the  unregulated  control  -of  unripe  and  inexperienced  youth  is,  to  say 
the  least,  unwise.  He  who  shall  consider  intelligently  and  critically, 
in  the  light  of  our  present  knowledge  of  brain  and  nerve  and  muscle 
physiology,  the  various  games  and  sports  which  are  deservedly  popular, 
and  shall  show  wherein  they  are  valuable  as  a  means  to  manly  and 
womanly  development,  cannot  fail  of  contributing  greatly  to  the  ad- 
vancement of  pedagogical  science. 

So  dense  is  the  present  ignorance,  not  only  of  the  mass  of  the  people, 
but  also  of  a  large  section  of  the  educated  portion  of  the  community, 
concerning  the  elementary  truths  of  biological  science  in  general  and 
of  psycho-physical  science  in  particular,  that  it  would  be  well-nigh 
hopeless  to  attempt  to  institute  and  administer  any  thorough-going 
system  of  physical  training  as  a  part  of  the  system  of  public  instruction 
682 


PHYSICAL    TRAINING    IN   AMERICAN   COLLEGES.  155 

in  even  the  most  enlightened  States  of  the  Union.  Until  the  modern 
doctrine  of  bodily  exercise  is  more  generally  apprehended,  we  can  only 
look  for  sporadic  efforts  and  fragmentary  and  discordant  results  in  so 
much  of  the  field  of  physical  training  as  the  richer  and  more  advanced 
colleges  and  universities  may  occupy.  The  German,  Swedish,  and 
French  systems  of  physical  training  and  of  educating  teachers  in  gym- 
nastics are  well  worth  studying;  but  the  greatest  present  need  is  to 
educate  trustees,  committee-men,  teachers,  and  physicians  in  physiology 
and  hygiene. 

DU  BOIS-KEYMOND   ON  EXEBCISE. 

One  of  the  pioneers  and  masters  in  modern  physiology,  Professor  Du 
Bois-Heymond,  of  the  University  of  Berlin,  has  given  an  admirable 
statement  of  the  physiology  of  exercise.  He  says : 

By  exercise  we  commonly  understand  the  frequent  repetition  of  a  more  or  less  com- 
plicated action  of  the  body  with  the  co-operation  of  the  mind,  or  of  an  action  of  the 
mind  alone,  for  the  purpose  of  being  able  to  perform  it  better.  We  seek  in  vain  in 
most  physiological  text-books  for  instruction  respecting  exercise ;  if  it  is  given,  only 
the  so-called  bodily  exercises  are  generally  considered,  and  they  are  represented  as 
merely  exercises  of  the  muscular  system;  therefore,  it  is  not  strange  that  laymen  in 
medicine,  professors  of  gymnastics,  and  school  teachers,  generally  believe  that.  Yet  it 
is  easy  to  show  the  error  of  this  view  and  demonstrate  that  such  bodily  exercises  as 
gymnastics,  fencing,  swimming,  riding,  dancing,  and  skating  are  much  more  exercises 
of  the  central  nervous  system, — of  the  brain  and  spinal  marrow.  It  is  true  that  these 
movements  involve  a  certain  degree  of  muscular  power ;  but  we  can  conceive  of  a 
man  with  muscles  like  those  of  the  Farnesian  Hercules,  who  would  yet  be  incom- 
petent to  stand  or  walk,  to  say  nothing  of  his  exerting  more  complicated  movements. 

Thus  it  becomes  clear,  if  proof  were  needed,  that  every  action  of  our  body  as  a 
motive  apparatus  depends  not  less,  but  more,  upon  the  co-operation  of  the  muscles 
than  upon  the  force  of  their  contraction.  In  order  to  execute  a  composite  motion, 
like  a  leap,  the  muscles  must  begin  to  work  in  the  proper  order,  and  the  energy  of 
each  one  of  them  (in  Helmholtz's  sense)  must  increase,  halt,  and  diminish  according 
to  a  certain  law,  so  that  the  result  shall  be  the  proper  position  of  the  limbs  and  the 
proper  velocity  of  the  center  of  gravity  in  the  proper  direction.  Since  the  nerves  only 
transmit  the  impulses  coming  from  the  motor-ganglion  cells,  it  is  evident  that  the 
peculiar  mechanism  of  the  composite  movements  resides  in  the  central  nervous  system, 
and  that  consequently  exercise  in  such  movements  is  really  nothing  else  than  exercise 
of  the  central  nerve-system.  This  possesses  the  invaluable  property  that  the  series 
of  movements,  if  we  may  speak  thus,  which  take  place  in  it,  frequently,  after  a  defi- 
nite law,  are  readily  repeated  in  the  satne  order,  with  the  same  swell  and  ebb  and 
intricacy,  whenever  a  singly  felt  impulse  of  the  will  demands  it.  Thus  all  the  bodily 
exercises  we  have  mentioned  above  are  not  merely  muscle  gymnastics,  but  also,  and 
that  pre-eminently,  nerve  gymnastics,  if  for  brevity  we  may  apply  the  term  nerves 
to  the  whole  nervous  system. 

Still,  something  else  than  the  control  of  the  muscles  by  the  motor-nervous  system 
comes  into  consideration  in  most  composite  movements.  The  sight,  the  sense  of  press- 
ure, and  the  muscular  sense,  and  finally  the  mind,  must  be  prepared  to  take  in  the  po- 
sition of  the  body  at  each  instant,  so  that  the  muscles  may  be  in  a  proper  state  of 
adjustment;  this  is  plainly  shown  in  the  exercises  of  fencing,  playing  billiards,  rope- 
dancing,  vaulting  on  horses  in  motion,  or  leaping  down  a  mountain  slope.  Thus  not 
only  the  motor,  but  the  sensor  nervous  system  also,  and  the  mental  functions,  are  capa- 
ble of  being  exercised,  and  need  it ;  and  the  muscles  again  appear  to  acquire  a  deeper 

C83 


156  CIRCULARS    OF    INFORMATION   FOR    1885. 

importance  in  gymnastics.  What  is  said  here  of  the  coarser  bodily  movements  ap- 
plies equally  to  all  skilled  work  of  the  highest  as  well  as  of  the  lowest  kind. 
Although  a  Liszt  or  a  Rubinstein  without  an  iron  muscularity  of  arm  cannot  be 
thought  of,  and  although,  likewise,  the  movements  of  Joachim's  bow  during  a  sym- 
phony may  correspond  to  many  kilogram-meters,  still  their  power  as  virtuosos  resides 
in  their  central  nerve-system.  When  Lessing  asked  whether  Raphael  would  have  been 
any  the  less  a  great  painter  if  he  had  been  born  without  hands,  he  perceived  this  truth. 
Is  it  necessary  to  add  that  the  same  principle  applies  to  all  the  movements  as  well  as 
to  those  of  the  hands?  that,  for  example,  vocal  culture  rests  upon  no  other  one? 

.  The  modem  ideal  of  manly  excellence  is  more  nearly  related  to  the 
Greek  ideal  than  to  the  monkish  or  even  the  knightly.  When  modern 
methods  for  the  realization  of  the  modern  ideal  are  perfected,  they  will 
doubtless  as  far  surpass  the  methods  of  the  Greeks  as  the  physiology 
of  Du  Bois  Eeymond  surpasses  that  of  Plato.  Meanwhile,  the  true  end 
a,nd  aim  of  physical  training  in  America  is  the  same  that  Plato  enun- 
ciated, namely,  that  the  bodies  of  the  trained  may,  better  than  those  of 
the  untrained,  minister  to  the  virtuous  mind. 

And  once  more  [to  continue  in  Plato's  words],  when  a  body  large  and  too  strong  for 
the  soul  is  united  to  a  small  and  weak  intelligence,  then,  inasmuch  as  there  are  two 
desires  natural  to  man,  one  of  food  for  the  sake  of  the  body,  and  one  of  wisdom  for 
the  sake  of  the  diviner  part  of  us,  then,  I  say,  the  motions  of  the  stronger,  getting 
the  better  and  increasing  their  own  power,  but  making  the  soul  dull  and  stupid  and 
forgetful,  engender  ignorance,  which  is  the  greatest  of  diseases.  There  is  one  pro- 
tection against  both  kinds  of  disproportion, — that  we  should  not  move  the  body  with- 
out the  soul,  or  the  soul  without  the  body,  and  thus  they  will  aid  one  another  and 
be  healthy  and  well  balanced.  Aud  therefore  the  mathematician,  or  any  one  else 
who  devotes  himself  to  some  intellectual  pursuit,  must  allow  his  body  to  have  motion 
also,  and  practice  gymnastics;  and  he  who  would  train  the  limbs  of  the  body  should 
impart  to  them  the  motions  of  the  soul,  and  should  practice  music  and  all  philosophy, 
if  he  would  be  called  truly  fair  and  truly  good. 
684 


APPENDIX. 


PHYSICAL  TRAINING  IN  GERMANY. 

Physical  training  has  been  accorded  a  considerable  place  in  the  educational  sys- 
tems of  the  principal  countries  of  Europe,  including  Germany,  Sweden  and  Norway, 
Switzerland,  France,  Austria,  Belgium,  ard  Denmark.  It  would  be  interesting  and 
instructive  to  compare  the  systems  of  physical  training  now  in  vogue  in  these  coun- 
tries with  what  has  been  attempted  and  accomplished  in  Great  Britain  and  the  United 
States.  The  writer  originally  intended  to  embody  such  a  comparison  in  this  report, 
but  found  it  impossible  to  gather,  from  the  libraries  to  which  he  had  access,  sufficient 
data  ou  which  to  base  a  comprehensive  and  accurate  account  of  the  actual  working 
of  physical  education  in  any  of  the  foreign  countries  named  above. 

Since  the  foregoing  pages  were  prepared  for  publication,  the  writer  has  visited 
Germany,  and,  through  personal  observation  and  inquiry,  made  a  tolerably  compre- 
hensive study  of  German  methods  of  physical  training,  especially  of  those  which 
obtain  in  Prussia.  While  he  would  not  disparage  the  merits  of  the  gymnastic  train- 
ing given  in  the  schools  of  Sweden,  Switzerland,  and  France,  and  of  other  coun- 
tries which  he  was  likewise  unable  to  visit,  the  writer  inclines  to  the  opinion  that 
the  Prussian  system  is  the  most  highly  developed  and  the  best  organized  of  its 
kind,  and  is,  therefore,  more  worthy  than  any  other  of  close  study  on  the  part  of 
those  who  desire  to  check  the  present  tendency  to  brain-forcing  in  the  education  of 
American  youth. 

DEVELOPMENT  OF   GERMAN  GYMNASTICS. 

English  and  American  writers  on  education  have  very  generally  either  entirely  neg- 
lected, or  largely  failed  to  apprehend,  the  lessons  which  German  experience  teaches  in 
regard  to  physical  education. 

The  German  for  gymnastics  is  Turnkunst,  or  Turnen,  though  the  term  Gymnasiik  oc- 
curs not  infrequently,  especially  in  the  earlier  writings.  Turnplatz  and  Turnhalle  cor- 
respond respectively  to  our  terms  out-door  gymnasium  and  gymnasium,  which- latter 
ordinarily  signifies  a  building  for  gymnastic  exercises.  A  gymnasium,  in  the  German 
sense,  is  the  highest  of  the  secondary  schools,  and  leads  directly  to  the  university. 
The  uniform  use  of  this  term  to  designate  such  schools  dates,  in  Prussia,  from  the 
year  1812. 

German  gymnastics  embrace  three  well-marked  fields,  or  departments,  viz :  Volka- 
turnen,  or  popular  gymnastics;  Schulturnen,  or  school  gymnastics;  and  Militarturnen, 
or  military  gymnastics.  The  organization  of  the  last  two  departments  is  maintained 
and  controlled  by  the  Government  for  strictly  educational  purposes;  whereas  the 
Turnvereine,  as  the  societies  of  the  turners  are  called,  are  voluntary  associations  of  a 
social  and  semi-educational,  but  wholly  popular  and  patriotic,  nature.  The  fondness 
of  the  German  people  for  gymnastic  exercises  is  as  marked  a  national  trait  as  is  the 
liking  of  the  British  for  athletic  eports.  The  germ  of  the  turning  system  is  to  be 
found  in  the  martial  games  and  exercises  of  the  ancient  Teutons. 

Considered  from  an  educational  point  of  view,  British  athletics  are  rude  and  primi- 
tive when  compared  with  German  gymnastics,  which,  in  many  of  their  features,  are 
almost  Grecian.  The  two  systems  are  as  widely  different  in  their  aims  and  methods 
as  are  the  British  school-boy  and  the  German  school-master,  and  for  the  same  reasons. 

685 


158  CIRCULARS    OF    INFORMATION   FOR    1885. 

GERMAN  REFORMS  AND  REFORMERS. 

The  reform  whereby  mental  and  physical  training  have  been  made  conjoint  factors 
in  the  compulsory  education  of  every  German,  has  been  worked  out  during  the  last 
hundred  years.  At  every  stage  of  its  course  the  quickening  and  shaping  influence  of 
innovating  educators  has  been  felt.  The  three  most  eminent  names  in  the  list  of  men 
identified  with  the  revival  and  upbuilding  of  German  gymnastics  are  those  of  Guts 
Muths,  Jahn,  and  Spiess.  Each  was  a  teacher  and  writer.  Jahn  was  an  agitator  and 
popular  leader  in  addition.  Guts  Muths  lived  from  1759  till  1839,  Jahn  from  1778  till 
1852,  and  Spiess  from  1810  till  1858. 

GUTS  MUTHS  AND  HIS  WORK. 

Guts  Muths  was  teacher  of  gymnastics  in  Salzmann's  Philanthropinum,  at  Schnep- 
fenthal,  from  1787  till  his  death,  in  1839.  His  "  Gymnastik  filr  die  Jugend,"  published  in 
1793,  was  the  first  German  manual  of  gymnastics.  He  did  much  by  his  writing!  and 
labors  to  prepare  the  way  for  Jahn,  the  "  Father  of  turning,"  and  Spiess,  the  "Founder 
of  German  school  gymnastics  and  the  creator  of  gymnastics  for  girls."  Guts  Muths's 
success  at  Schnepfenthal  led  many  private  and  a  few  public  teachers  to  attempt  to 
give  their  pupils  some  gymnastic  training.  The  influence  of  Guts  Muths  is  also 
traceable  in  the  revival  of  gymnastics  in  Denmark,  under  the  lead  of  Nachtigall,  and 
in  Sweden,  where  Ling,  the  founder  of  modern  medical  gymnastics,  made  gymnastics 
extremely  popular.  It  should  not  be  forgotten  that  Ling  did  much  more  than  to  de- 
velop the  Swedish  movement  cure,  on  which  his  fame  outside  of  his  own  country 
chiefly  rests.  He  organized  admirable  systems  of  popular  and  school  gymnastics, 
which  are  still  extant  and  flourishing. 

REFORMS  IN  PRUSSIA. 

Prussia's  commanding  position  in  science  and  politics  is  due  to  the  perfection  of 
her  educational  and  military  systems.  Their  present  excellence  and  efficiency  are,  in 
a  large  degree,  the  outcome  of  reforms  begun  by  the  sagacious  and  energetic  ministers 
of  the  father  of  Kaiser  Wilhelm,  in  the  period  of  Prussia'**  deepest  humiliation  and 
distress,  the  period  between  the  battle  of  Jena,  in  1806,  and  the  War  of  Liberation,  in 
1813.  Bismarck  and  his  coadjutors,  Roon,  Moltke,  and  Falk,  have  but  cultivated  the 
seed  and  reaped  the  fruits  of  the  reforms  instituted  or  marked  out  by  Stein,  and 
.Scharnhorst,  and  Wilhelm  von  Hutnboldt. 

Steiu  emancipated  the  peasants  from  serfdom,  broke  down  the  barriers  between 
them  and  the  middle  classes,  and  gave  enlarged  freedom  to  trade.  His  name  is  also 
associated  with  radical  and  successful  reforms  in  the  constitution  and  administration 
of  the  State.  Scharnhorst  reorganized  the  army  in  accordance  with  the  principle  that 
all  the  inhabitants  of  a  country  should  be  trained  to  defend  it.  "In  the  field  of  edu- 
cational reform  the  providential  man,"  says  Professor  Seeley,  "appeared  in  Hum- 
boldt,  as  great  a  master  of  the  science  and  art  of  education  as  Scharnhorst  was  of 
war." 

As  early  as  1804,  Guts  Muths  urged  upon  the  Prussian  minister,  Massow,  the  im- 
portance of  introducing  physical  education  into  the  schools  as  a  means  of  promoting 
the  military  efficiency  of  the  people.  The  minister  replied  that  he  proposed  to  make 
bodily  training  an  essential  part  of  his  plan  for  national  education.  The  war  with 
Napoleon  prevented  this  reform  from  being  more  than  projected.  In  1808  Scharnhorst's 
provisional  scheme  for  the  reorganization  of  the  army  was  submitted  to  Stein  for 
criticism  and  suggestions.  Scharnhorst  urged  that  fencing,  swimming,  leaping,  etc., 
should  be  taught  in  the  town  and  city  schools.  Stein  approved  the  views  of  Scharn- 
horst in  regard  to  bodily  exercises,  called  attention  to  the  success  of  Guts  Muths  at 
Schnepfenthal,  and  suggested  the  desirability  of  securing  his  co-operation  in  bringing 
about  the  general  introduction  of  gymnastics  into  the  schools.  Humboldt  likewise 


PHYSICAL    TKAINING    IN    AMEKICAN    COLLEGES.  159 

favored  the  scheme,  but  no  efficient  measures  were  taken,  at  this  time,  to  carry  it  out. 
The  first  public  gymnastic  ground  (Turnplatz)  was  established  in  the  summer  of  1809 
at  Braunsberg,  in  Prussia,  under  the  auspices  of  a  secret  association  formed  under  the 
name  of  "  The  Moral  and  Scientific  Union,"  the  so-called  Tugendbund,  for  the  purpose 
of  arousing  national  feeling  and  throwing  off  the  French  yoke.  The  gymnastics 
adopted  at  Braunsberg  seem  to  have  been  based  on  the  principles  of  Guts  Muths. 

"FATHER  JAHN"  AND  THE  TURNERS. 

That  gymnastics  under  the  name  of  Turnen  became  a  popular  institution  and  a 
potent  factor  in  national  development,  was  due  to  Jahn,  a  man  of  much  more  aggres- 
sive spirit  than  the  quiet  teacher  of  gymnastics  at  Schnepfenthal.  In  1810  Jahn  be- 
came a  teacher  in  the  Kollnischfs  Gymnasium,  one  of  the  city  schools  in  Berlin,  and 
in  18ll-'12  he  also  taught  in  Plamann's  Pestalozzian  Institute  in  the  same  city. 
Prince  Bismarck  was  a  pupil  in  this  institute  from  1822  till  1827. 

Jahn  was  an  ardent  patriot,  and  was  filled  with  an  enthusiastic  admiration  of  the 
spirit,  manners,  and  speech  of  the  ancient  Germans.  His  strong  and  rugged  nature, 
and  his  eager,  restless,  passionate  spirit,  qualified  him  for  popular  leadership  in  the 
movement  which  he  initiated.  He  seized  the  idea  of  making  bodily  training  a  force 
in  national  regeneration  and  education,  and  dreamed  and  wrote  and  labored  for  a 
free  and  united  Germany.  Before  he  had  fairly  entered  upon  his  course  as  a  teacher 
in  Berlin,  his  book  on  "German  Nationality"  appeared  in  1810.  In  the  interval 
which  elapsed  between  1810  and  1816,  the  date  of  "Die  Deutsche  Turnkunst,"  he  accom- 
plished the  main  labor  of  his  life.  The  nature  of  his  work,  the  ideas  by  which  he 
was  animated,  and  the  circumstances  of  the  time  which  favored  his  success,  are  in- 
dicated in  the  following  extracts  from  "Die  Deutsche  Turnkunst" : 

Like  many  other  things  in  this  world,  the  German  turning  system  had  a  small  and 
insignificant  beginning.  In  the  end  of  the  year  1809 1  went  to  Berlin  to  see  the  entry 
of  the  King.  Love  to  my  fatherland  and  my  own  inclinations  now  made  me  a  teacher 
of  youth,,  as  I  had  often  been  before.  During  the  beautiful  spring  of  1810  a  few  of  my 
pupils  began  to  go  out  with  me  into  the  woods  and  fields  on  the  holiday  afternoons 
of  Wednesday  and  Saturday,  and  the  habit  became  confirmed.  Their  number  in- 
creased, and  we  had  various  youthful  sports  and  exercises.  Thus  we  went  on  until 
the  dog-days,  when  the  number  was  very  large,  but  very  soon  fell  off  again.  But 
there  was  left  a  select  number,  a  nucleus,  who  held  together  even  during  the  winter, 
with  whom  the  first  turning  ground  was  opened  in  the  spring  of  1811,  in  the  Hasen- 
heide  [i.  e.,  a  pine  forest  on  the  outskirts  of  Berlin]. 

At  the  present  time  many  exercises  are  practiced  in  company  and  before  the  eyes 
of  all,  under  the  name  of  turning.  But  then  the  names  turning  system,  turning, 
tuvuer,  turning  ground,  and  the  like,  came  up  all  at  once,  and  gave  occasion  for  much 
excitement,  scandal,  and  authorship.  The  subject  was  discussed  even  in  the  French 
daily  papers,  and  even  here  in  our  own  country  it  was  at  first  said  that  the  ancient  Ger- 
man ways  have  brought  forth  a  new  folly. 

During  the  winter  we  studied  whatever  could  bo  got  on  the  subject,  and  we  re- 
flected with  gratitude  upon  our  predecessors,  Vieth  and  Guts  Muths.  The  stronger 
and  more  experienced  of  my  pupils  made  a  very  skillful  use  of  their  writings,  and 
were  able,  during  the  next  summer,  to  labor  as  instructors  in  turning.  In  the  sum- 
mer of  1812  both  the  turning  ground  and  system  of  exercises  were  enlarged.  They 
became  more  varied  from  turning  day  to  turning  day,  and  were  mutually  developed 
by  the  pupils  in  their  friendly  contests  of  youthful  emulation.  It  is  impossible  to  say 
in  detail  who  first  discovered,  tried,  investigated,  proved,  and  completed  one  or  an- 
other exercise.  From  the  very  beginning  the  turning  system  has  shown  great  com- 
munity of  spirit,  patriotic  feeling,  perseverance,  and  self-denial.  Every  extension 
or  development  of  it  was  used  for  the  common  good,  and  such  is  still  the  case. 

Toward  the  end  of  the  summer  exercises  of  1812,  a  sort  of  association  of  turners  was 
formed  for  the  purpose  of  the  scientific  investigation  and  artistic  organization  of  the 
turning  system  in  the  most  useful  and  generally  applicable  manner.  On  the  King's 
proclamation  of  February  3,  1813,  all  the  turners  capable  of  bearing  arms  entered  the 
field.  After  long  persuasion  I  succeeded  at  Breslau  in  inducing  Ernst  Eiselen,  one  of 
my  oldest  pupils,  to  take  charge  of  the  turning  institution  during  the  war.  I  myself 
accompanied  Eiselen  from  Breslau  to  Berlin,  and  introduced  him  to  the  authorities 
and  to  the  principals  of  schools,  who  promised  him  all  manner  of  co-operatiou,  and 
who  have  ever  since  shown  confidence  in  him.  Since  that  time  Eiselen  has  been  at 

687 


160  CIRCULARS    OF    INFORMATION   FOR   1885. 

the  head  of  the  turning  institution,  during  the  summers  of  1813  and  1814  and  the 
intervening  winter,  and  has  conducted  the  exercises  of  those  who  were  too  young  to 
carry  arms. 

At  the  eud  of  July,  1814,  I  returned  to  Berlin.  In  the  winter,  when  the  volunteers 
returned,  bringing  many  turners  with  them,  the  associated  discussions  were  reuewed. 
On  the  escape  of  Napoleon  all  the  turners  able  to  bear  arms  volunteered  again  for  the 
field,  only  two  who  had  fought  during  the  campaigns  of  1813  and  1814  remaining  at 
home  from  the  consequences  of  those  campaigns. 

The  younger  ones  who  remained  behind  now  took  hold  of  the  work  again  with  re- 
newed zeal.  During  the  spring  and  summer  of  1815  the  turning  ground  received 
still  further  improvements  and  enlargements.  In  the  following  autumn  and  early 
part  of  winter,  the  turning  system  was  again  made  the  object  of  associated  investi- 
gation. After  the  subject  had  been  ripely  considered  and  investigated  in  the  turning 
council,  and  opinions  had  been  compared,  experience  cited  and  views  corrected,  a  be- 
ginninsj  was  made  in  collecting  into  one  whole  all  the  results  of  earlier  and  later  la- 
bors on  the  subject,  and  all  the  separate  fragments  and  contributions  relative  to  it, 
a  labor  which  has  lastly  been  revised  by  my  own  pen.  Although  it  was  only  one  ar- 
chitect who  at  first  drew  the  plan,  yet  master,  associates,  pupils,  and  workmen  have 
all  labored  faithfully  and  honestly  upon  the  structure,  and  have  all  contributed  their 
shares  to  it. 

This  is  a  brief  account  of  my  work,  my  words,  and  my  book.  Neither  of  the  three 
is  perfect ;  but  the  book  may  serve  to  promote  a  recognition  of  its  ideal.  It  is  put 
forth  only  by  way  of  rendering  an  account  to  the  fatherland  of  what  we  have  done 
and  endeavored. 

The  turning  system  would  re-establish  the  lost  symmetry  of  human  development; 
would  connect  a  proper  bodily  training  with  mere  exclusive  intellectual  cultivation; 
would  supply  the  proper  counteracting  influence  to  the  prevailing  over-refinement, 
and  would  comprehend  and  influence  the  whole  man  by  means  of  a  social  mode  of 
living  for  the  young.  Every  turning  institution  is  a  place  for  exercising  the  bodily 
powers,  a  school  of  industry  in  manly  activity,  a  place  of  chivalrous  contest,  an  aid 
to  education,  a  protection  to  the  health,  and  a  public  benefit.  It  is  constantly  and 
interchangeably  a  place  of  teaching  and  of  learning.  In  an  unbroken  circle  follow 
constantly  after  each  <>thcr,  direction,  exemplification,  instruction,  independent  in- 
vestigation, practice,  emulation,  and  further  instruction.  Thus  the  turners  do  not 
learn  their  occupation  from  hearsay.  They  have  lived  in  and  with  their  work,  inves- 
tigated it,  proved  it,  and  perfected  it.  It  awakens  all  the  dormant  powers  and 
secures  a  self-confidence  and  readiness  which  are  never  found  at  a  loss. 

The  director  of  a  turning  institution  undertakes  a  high  duty.  He  must  cherish 
and  protect  the  simplicity  of  the  young,  that  it  may  not  be  injured  by  untimely  pre- 
cocity. He  who  is  not  thoroughly  penetrated  with  a  childlike  spirit  and  national 
feelings,  should  never  take  charge  of  a  turning  institution.  It  is  a  holy  work  and 
life. 

But  all  education  is  useless  and  idle  which  leaves  the  pupil  to  disappear,  like  a 
will-o'-the-wisp,  in  the  waste  folly  of  a  fancied  cosmopolitanism,  and  does  not  confirm 
him  in  patriotic  feeling ;  and  thus,  even  in  the  worst  period  of  the  French  domina- 
tion, love  of  king  and  fatherland  were  preached  to  and  impressed  upon  the  youth  of 
the  turning  association.  No  one  ought  to  enter  a  turning  association  who  is  know- 
ingly a  perverter  of  German  nationality,  and  praises,  loves,  promotes,  or  defends  for- 
eign manners. 

With  such  principles  did  the  turning  societies  strengthen,  train,  arm,  encourage, 
and  man  themselves  for  the  fatherland,  in  the  sultry  times  of  the  devil.  Nor  did  faith, 
love,  or  hope  desert  them  for  a  moment.  "God  deserts  no  German,"  has  always  been 
their  motto.  In  war  none  of  them  staid  at  home,  except  those  too  young  or  too  weak, 
and  they  were  not  idle. 

The  turning  system  [says  Von  Raumer]  soon  spread  from  Berlin  throughout  Ger- 
many, and  a  large  part  of  Southern  Germany.  Next  to  Berlin,  Breslau  had  the  largest 
number  of  turners,  some  eight  hundred.  In  that  city  students,  Catholic  and  Protestant, 
seminary  pupils,  the  pupils  of  four  Gymnasien,  officers,  and  professors  frequented  the 
turning  ground.  Singing  flourished.  On  Wednesday  and  Saturday  afternoons,  after 
exercising  from  three  to  seven,  the  whole  company  returned  singing  to  the  city. 
******* 

Together  with  this  first  natural  development  of  the  turning  system,  there  came  up 
also  a  reaction  against  many  received  and  universal  customs  and  manners.  This  nec- 
essarily aroused  enemies,  and  the  more  because  the  turners  frequently  overpassed  the 
bounds  of  moderation,  and  made  turning  identical  with  a  warfare  against  all  ancient 
errors.  This  was  particularly  the  case  after  the  war  of  freedom. 


PHYSICAL    TRAININGS   IN    AMERICAN    COLLEGES.  16l 

THE  ATTITUDK   OF  THE  STATE  AUTHORITIES. 

The  state  authorities,  especially  those  at  the  head  of  the  department  of  education, 
seem  to  have  manifested  a  lively  and,  on  the  whole,  friendly  interest  in  Jahn  and 
his  work.  In  1813,  during  Jahn's  absence  in  the  field,  six  hundred  and  seventy  tha- 
lers  were  appropriated  to  enable  Eiselen  to  conduct  an  eight  weeks'  normal  course 
of  instruction  for  teachers  of  turning,  but  it  was  impracticable  to  carry  out  the 
plan  at  that  time.  Several  reports  of  a  favorable  nature  were  made  to  the  Govern- 
ment on  the  pedagogical  and  hygienic  worth  of  turning,  and  turning  grounds  weie 
established  in  various  parts  of  fhe  Kingdom  under  governmental  auspices.  In  1814 
the  Prussian  chancellor,  Prince  Hardenberg,  bestowed  a  pension  of  five  hundred 
thalers  upon  Jahn,  in  recognition  of  his  services  to  the  state.  In  September,  1815, 
Jahn's  pension  w»s  increased  to  eight  hundred  thalers,  and  Eiselen  was  granted  a 
salary  of  four  hundred  thalers.  This  was  due  to  a  report  made  to  Hardeuberg  in 
April,  1815,  by  Minister  Von  Schuckmann,  to  whom  Hardeuberg  had  referred  a  plan 
of  Jahn's  for  enlarging  the  turrplatz,  purchasing  certain  buildings,  and  bringing  the 
turning  institution  into  close  connection  with  the  Berlin  school-system.  Von  Schuck- 
raauu  was  averse,  by  reason  of  the  low  state  of  the  treasury,  to  incurring  the  large 
expenditures  suggested  by  Jahu,  and  deemed  it  unadvisable  to  introduce  turning 
formally  into  the  schools,  lest  it  should  lose  its  spontaneous  popular  character. 

In  Ibid  Alteustein,  the  minister  of  education,  caused  an  official  investigation  to  be 
made  into  the  nature,  extent,  and  effects  of  turning  throughout  Prussia.  During  the 
period  1816-'19,  the  department  of  education  elaborated  a  provisional  scheme  for  a 
general  education  law,  which,  however,  was  never  enacted  in  its  entirety.  In  this 
scheme  a  place  was  assigned  to  gymnastics,  and  it  was  proposed  to  introduce  them 
into  the  rural  schools  as  well  as  into  the  middle  schools,  normal  schools,  and  Gyui- 
nasieu. 

At  last,  in  1819,  a  plan  was  perfected  by  the  educational  authorities  for  the  estab- 
lishment of  turning  grounds  thonghout  Prussia  in  connection  with  the  schools.  On 
March  23,  1819,  the  very  day  that  this  plan  was  laid  before  the  King  for  his  ap- 
proval and  signature,  the  news  of  Kotzebue's  murder  by  Sand,  who  was  a  student  and 
a.  turner,  reached  Berlin,  and  the  King  refused  his  approval.  Sand's  deed  of  crazy 
violence  had,  as  it  appears  now,  no  political  significance;  but  the  Prussian  Govern- 
ment feared  revolution,  and  looked  upon  the  spread  of  liberal  ideas  among  the  rising 
generation  with  alarm.  The  Burschenschaften,  or  students'  societies,  and  the  Turn- 
rereine  were  pnr.  under  the  ban  as  being  hotbeds  of  liberalism.  Jahn  was  arrested 
in  July,  1819,  on  I  he  charge  of  engaging  in  revolutionary  practices  and  conspiring 
to  as.sassinate  a  privy  councilor,  Von  Kamptz  by  name.  Francis  Lieber,  then  a  youth 
of  nineteen,  one  of  Jahu's  oldest  and  favorite  pupils,  was  also  arrested  on  suspicion. 
Lieber  regained  his  freedom  in  a  few  months,  but  was  forbidden  to  study  at  a  Prus- 
sian university.  Jahn  was  acquitted  and  set  free  in  1825,  but  was  banished  from  Ber- 
lin, and  forbidden  to  reside  in  any  town  where  there  was  a  university  or  Gymnasium. 
Francis  Lieber  came  to  the  United  States  in  1827  for  the  express  purpose  of  taking 
charge  of  the  then  recently  founded  Tremont  Gymnasium,  in  Boston,  Mass.,  where 
he  established  a  swimming  school  on  his  own  account. 

In  January,  1820,  the  Government  abolished  turning  in  Prussia  by  closing  the 
turning  grounds,  some  ninety  in  number.  Volkstnrnen  was  not  again  allowed  until 
1842.  Gradually  gymnastics  found  a  place  in  the  instruction  of  a  few  Hchools.  In 
1836,  Dr.  Loriuser,  of  Oppeln,  published  in  a  medical  journal  an  article  entitled 
•'The  Protection  of  Health  in  Schools."  Dr.  Lorinser  was  very  severe  in  his  strict- 
ures on  the  management  of  the  schools,  especially  of  the  Gymnasien.  He  declared 
that  bodily  and  mental  weakness  were  on  the  increase  among  school  children,  and 
especially  the  Gymnasium  pupils,  by  reason  of  the  overburdening  due  to  multiplicity 
of  studies,  too  many  school  hours,  and  an  undue  amount  of  home  work.  This  paper 
g.ive  rise  to  a  wide  and  somewhat  heated  discussion,  and  indirectly  brought  about  a 
renewed  interest  in  school  gymnastics. 

5068— No.  5 11  689 


Ifi2  CIRCULARS    OF    INFORMATION    FOR    188',. 

In  1840  the  department  of  education  recommended  the  introduction  of  bodily  train- 
ing into  all  the  higher  schools  for  b^-vs.  In  April,  1842,  the  ministers  of  war,  the 
interior,  and  education,  united  in  recommending  to  the  King  the  reintroductiou  of 
turning.  In  June  following,  the  King  gave  his  sanction  to  the  proposal  of  his  minis- 
ters that  ''  bodily  exercises  shonld  be  acknowledged  formally  as  a  necessary  and  in- 
dispensable integral  part  of  male  education,  and  should  be  adopted  as  an  agency  in 
the  education  of  the  people."  The  King  also  authorized  the  establishment  of  "gym- 
nastic institutes,"  in  connection  with  "  the  Gyinnasieii,  the  higher  middle  schools,  the 
training  schools  for  teachers,  and  the  division  and  brigade  schools  in  the  army." 

THE   REVIVAL   OF   TURNING. 

Volksturneu  revived,  after  the  promulgation  of  the  above  cited  cabinet  order  of 
King  Frederick  William  IV;  but  its  aims  and  usages  were  too  strongly  colored  by 
political  views  for  the  turning  societies  to  pass  unscathed  through  the  troublous  years 
1848-'50.  It  was  not  until  1660  that  the  turning  movement  began  to  regain  its  lost 
momentum.  Great  enthusiasm  for  turning  was  awakened  by  the  first  German  turn- 
ing festival,  held  at  Coburg,  in  1860,  in  which  some  thousand  or  more  turners  took 
part  in  celebrating  the  victory  of  Waterloo.  In  August,  1861,  came  the  second  gen- 
eral Turnfest,  when  the  turners  celebrated,  at  Berlin,  the  fiftieth  anniversary  of  the 
establishment,  by  ,1  aim.  of  the  original  turnplatz  in  the  Haseuheide.  Nearly  six  thou- 
sand turners,  representing  more  than  two  hundred  and  sixty  districts,  took  part  in 
this  festival,  which  is  also  notable  for  the  laying  of  the  corner-stone  of  the  national 
monument  to  Jahn.  The  completed  monument,  consisting  of  a  bronze  statue  of  Jahn 
upon  a  pedestal  of  stones  contributed  by  turning  societies  in  every  quarter  of  the 
world,  was  dedicated  in  August,  1872. 

Between  1859  and  1862  the  number  of  German  turnvereine  increased  from  241  to 
1,279.  In  1863,  20,000  turners  took  part  at  Leipzig  in  the  celebration  of  the  fiftieth 
anniversary  of  Napoleon's  defeat  near  that  city  by  the  allies.  A  year  later  the  socie- 
ties numbered  nearly  2,000,  and  their  members  nearly  168,000.  The  great  majority 
of  German  tnruvereiue  have,  since  1860,  belonged  to  the  organization  known  as 
the  Ueut&chr  Turnerschaft. 

THE  "DEUTSCHE  TURNERSCHAFT." 

The  Turnerschaft  comprises  fifteen  circuits,  or  geographical  divisions,  within  the 
German  Empire  and  Austria.  Each  circuit  (Kreis)  is  subdivided  into  districts  (Ga«e), 
and  each  district  into  societies  (  Vereine).  On  January!,  1885,  there  were  220  Tum- 
gane  within  the  Turnerschaft.  In  1880,  out  of  2,226  turuvereiue  in  1,741  municipali- 
ties and  villages,  1,971,  with  a  total  membership  of  170,315,  belonged  to  the  Turner- 
schaft. On  January  1,  1885,  the  number  of  vereiue  within  the  Turnerschaft  had  risen 
to  2,878,  an  increase  of  223  over  1884  ;  while  the  uuniber  of  vereine  outside  the  Tnrn- 
erscbaft  had  decreased  from  343  to  329.  The  membership  in  1885  was  267,854,  of 
whom  114,134  were  active  turners;  or,  to  express  it  differently,  in  2,413  localities 
there  was  an  active  member  of  the  Turnerschaft  for  every  134  of  the  population. 
During  lt'82,  1,915  vereine  practiced  turning  in  the  winter;  294  owned  a  turnplatz, 
and  153  a  turnhalle ;  while  in  1884,  2,409  societies  practiced  winter  turning,  353 owned 
a  turnplatz,  antt  182  owned  a  turnhalle. 

It  is  almost  as  common  to  find  turnvereine  among  Germans  in  foreign  lauds  as  to 
find  cricket  and  foot-ball  clubs  among  British  colonists.  Turning  societies  flourish  in 
the  United  States,  Brazil,  Chili,  and  Australia,  as  well  as  in  every  country  in  Europe. 
In  the  United  States  the  principal  association  of  the  turners  is  the  North  American 
Turnerbund,  which  embraces  more  than  two  hundred  vereine  with  a  membership  of 
more  than  twenty  thousand. 

690 


PHYSICAL    TRAINING    IN   AMERICAN   COLLEGES.  163 

The  nature  and  working  of  the  spirit  which  animates  the  German  folk  are  disclosed 
to  a  highly  interesting  degree  in  the  organization  and  the  management  of  the  Deutsche 
Turnerschaft,  which  is,  in  a  sense,  the  most  genuinely  popular  of  German  institutions, 
lu  their  Volksturnen  we  find  the  people  acting  with  more  freedom  and  spontaneity 
than  iu  almost  any  other  field.  It  is  one  of  the  few  fields  in  which  the  folk  has  heen 
left  comparatively  untrammeled  by  the  Government.  While  its  aims  are  hroadly 
national  and  social,  and  tinged  with  sentimental  idealism,  the  Turnerschaft  reflects 
in  its  democratic  organization  and  government,  its  systematic  methods,  and  its  eco- 
nomical administration,  the  severely  practical  German  spirit,  with  all  its  love  of  or- 
der, discipline,  and  minute  division  of  labor.  The  turnvereine  are  in  their  way  as 
much  center  points  of  the  popular  life  of  Germany  as  the  gymnasia  were  center  points 
in  Greek  life.  It  is  to  be  noted,  however,  that  the  Turnerschaft  is  largely  recruited 
from  such  classes  ae  were  enslaved  by  the  Greeks. 

Volksturnen  of  the  present  day  differs  somewhat  from  that  which  flourished  in  the 
time  of  Jahn  and  Eiselen.  Individualism  is  less  rampant  for  one  thing,  and  certain 
styles  of  exercise  first  made  prominent  by  Spiess,  whose  method  and  work  we  shall 
consider  under  Schulturnen,  have  been  adopted  by  the  turners.  Then,  too,  the 
turnvereine  have  ceased  to  resemble  political  clubs.  The  committee  of  the  turn- 
vereine declared  at  Gotha  in  1861  that  turning  could  only  yield  abundant  fruit  when 
it  should  be  considered  a  means  for  training  strong  men  for  the  entire  fatherland. 
The  turuvereine  should  hold  themselves  entirely  aloof  from  the  consideration  of  party 
questions  as  such.  The  formation  of  definite  political  opinions  was  the  affair  and 
duty  of  the  individual  turners.  The  general  adoption  of  military  exercises  by  the 
turners  was  deprecated.  A  genuine  normal  training  to  render  the  body  equal  to  the 
performance  of  all  manly  exercises  should  remain  the  principal  concern  and  business 
of  the  turnrereine. 

The  hand-book  of  the  Deutsche  Turnerschaft  very  clearly  sets  forth  the  distinctive 
features  of  the  Volksturnen  of  the  present  day.  What  follows  in  relation  to  the 
aims,  organization,  and  practices  of  the  Turnerschaft  is  based  upon  statements  made 
in  that  work,  and  in  the  organ  of  the  Turnerschaft,  the  Deuttche  Tnrn-Zeitung,  a 
weekly  paper  published  at  Leipzig,  and  also  upon  personal  observations  made  in 
various  German  cities, -particularly  in  Dresden,  during  the  continuance  of  the  Sixth 
General  German  Turning  Festival,  held  there  in  July,  1885. 

The  aim  of  the  Turnerschaft  is  to  promote  the  interests  of  turning,  as  a  means  to 
bodily  and  moral  strength.  Its  members  (any  German  of  good  moral  character  who 
is  fourteen  years  old,  may  join  it)  are  urged  to  render  turning  attractive  to  boys  and 
apprentices  who  have  passed  the  school  age ;  to  cultivate  simple  German  customs  and 
manners;  to  cultivate  national  exercises  and  games,  such  as  free  and  class  exercises, 
running,  leaping,  climbing,  casting  the  weight,  hurling  the  spear,  wrestling,  fencing, 
and  sword  play ;  to  promote  sociability  through  the  singing  of  folk  songs,  and  those 
having  freedom  and  the  fatherland  for  their  themes— such  songs  should  be  thoroughly 
known  by  every  turner,  and  not  merely  their  first  lines ;  to  participate  in  all  popular 
festivals,  especially  those  commemorative  of  national  events,  such  as  the  Kaiser's 
birthday,  Sedan  day,  and  the  like ;  to  manifest  an  active  interest  in  useful  public  en- 
terprises and  associations,  such  as  fire  and  salvage  companies,  and  sanitary  corps  for 
the  care  and  transportation  of  the  sick  and  injured. 

The  turners  are  divided  into  two  main  sections,  viz,  boys  from  fourteen  to  seventeen 
years  of  ago,  and  men.  These  divisions  are  subdivided  according  to  their  gymnastic 
ability  into  squads,  or  classes  (Riegen),  each  class  being  under  the  lead  and  guidance 
of  a  "  foreturner"  ( Vorturner},  chosen  on  account  of  fitness.  The  chief  foreturner  is 
the  turriwarden  (Turnwart).  Strength  alone  is  not  enough.  It  is  the  foretnrner's 
business  1o  make  his  squad  as  expert  as  possible,  and  above  all  to  secure  to  each  of 
its  members  an  erect,  firm,  and  graceful  carriage  of  the  body. 

The  times  most  favored  for  turning  are  Sundays,  holidays,  and  certain  appointed 
evenings  during  the  week.  The  order  recommended  for  the  ordinary  evening  turning 

691 


164  CIRCULARS    OF    INFORMATION   FOR    1885. 

is  as  follows:  A  brief  Kiirturnen,  i.  «.,  gymnastic  exercise  in  which  each  individual 
follows  his  own  taste  and  inclination  as  to  apparatus  and  movement.  Then  con«« 
the  formation  of  the  classes,  which  fall  into  line  at  a  signal  from  the  tnrnwart,  and  at  a 
second  signal  march  to  the  machines,  the  hars,  horse,  horizontal  bar,  etc.,  to  which 
«acb  has  been  assigned.  The  exercise  on  each  piece  of  apparatus  is  set  by  the  fore- 
turner  at .  the  head  of  the  class.  Usually  after  exercising  for  a  quarter  of  an  hour 
the  lines  are  reformed  and  each  class  marches  to  a  machine  of  a  different  character. 
After  this  second  period  of  fifteen  minutes  of  heavy  gymnastic  exercise  (Geratturnen) 
the  ranks  are  reformed,  and  "  free  movements  "  are  made  by  the  assembled  classes. 
No  apparatus  is  used  in  the  free  movements,  which  are  made  in  unison  and  according 
to  commands  given  by  the  turnwart.  The  evening  closes  with  a  second  Ktirturnen. 
The  affairs  of  the  verein  are  regulated  by  officers  elected  by  its  members.  The  pro- 
gramme of  exercises,  ».  e.,  the  amount  and  nature  of  the  Geratturnen,  or  heavy  gym- 
nastics, is  determined  by  the  officers  and  is  duly  bulletined.  The  foreturners  are  bound 
to  practice  together  at  appointed  times.  The  order  of  exercises  on  the  gymnastic 
machines  is  changed  from  evening  to  evening,  and  variety  and  interest  are  further 
secured,  when  the  weather  is  favorable,  by  engaging  in  out-of-door  games  (Turnspiele) 
in  the  tumplatz.  The  cultivation  of  gymnastic  specialties  and  of  one-sided  dexterity 
.is  discouraged. 

From  time  to  time  the  societies  comprised  in  a  district,  and  the  districts  included 
in  a  circuit,  hold  festivals,  when  both  individuals  and  squads  compete  for  prizes. 
The  intervals  between  these  festivals  vary  greatly  in  the  different  circuits  and  dis- 
tricts. The  General  German  Turning  Festival  (Das  Attgemeine  Deutsche  Turnfest), 
as  the  grand  festival  of  the  entire  Turnerschaft  is  termed,  occurs  at  intervals  of  at 
least  four  years.  It  continues  for  at  least  three  days,  one  of  which  must  be  Sunday. 
Six  such  festivals  have  been  held  in  different  German  cities  since  the  first  was  cele- 
brated at  Coburg  in  1860. 

THE  DRESDEN  TTJRNF«ST  IN   1885. 

The  programme  carried  out  at  the  sixth  Deutsche  Turnfest  in  Dresden,  July  18-23, 
1885,  was  in  the  main  as  follows : 

Saturday,  July  18. 

Reception  during  the  day  at  the  railroad  station  and  steamer  wharves  on  the  Elbe 
of  the  visiting  turners.  At  8  P.  M.  reception  at  the  festival  hall.  Transfer  of  the 
standard  of  the  Turnerschaft  from  the  Frankfort-on-the-Main  color  guard  to  the 
Dresden  color  guard.  Celebration  of  the  twenty-fifth  anniversary  of  the  founding  of 
the  Turnerschaft.  Music  and  singing  in  the  festival  hall. 

Sunday,  July  19. 

6  to  7  A.M.  Reveille  (  Weckruf). 

7  to  9  A.M.  Bathing  in  the  Elbe. 

11.30  A.M.  Formation  of  festival  procession. 

11.45  A.M.  to  2.30  P.M.  March  to  the  festival  grounds. 

3.30  P.M.    Assembly  of  turners  and  general  free  gymnastics  in  the  festival 

grounds. 
5  to  7  P.M.  Class  exercise  (Musterriegenturnen)  of  the  most  proficient  squads, 

representing  single  circuits,  districts,  and  societies. 
7  to  8  P.M.  General  Kiirturneu  and  gymnastic  games. 

From  8  P.M.,  in  the  hall,  concert  by  the  united  singing  societies  of  Dresden. 
From  5  P.M.,  on  the  grounds,  music  and  dancing. 

692 


PHYSICAL    TRAINING   IN    AMERICAN    COLLEGES.  165 

Monday,  July  20. 

7  A.M.  to  12  M.  Prize  turning  ( WeUturnen)  and  class  turning. 

12  to  3  P.M.  Banquet  in  the  hall. 

3  to  5  P.M.  Free  gymnastics  by  the  Saxon  turners,  including  the  pupils  of  the 

higher  boys'  schools  of  Dresden. 
5  to  7  P.M.  Class  turning;  exhibition  sword  play  (Schaufechten). 

7  to  8  P.M.  Kiirturnen  by  the  most  expert  turners.     Games. 

8  P.M.  Convention  of  the  German  teachers  of  gymnastics. 

8  P.M.  Reunions  of  fellow-countrymen. 

From  5  P.M.  Music  and  dancing  on  the  grounds  and  in  the  hall. 

Tuesday,  July  21. 

7  A.M.  to  12  M.  Prize  turning  and  conclusion  of  class  turning. 

2  to  3  P.M.  Prize  sword  play  (Preisfechten). 

3  to  7  P.M.  Prize  turning. 
7  to  8  P.M.  Games. 

9  P.M.  Torch  dance. 

From  5  P.M.  Music  and  dancing. 

Wednesday,  July  22. 

7  to  10  A.M.  Conclusion  of  prize  turning. 

10  A.M.  to  12  M.  Gymnastic  games  by  the  boys  and  girls  of  the  public  schools 

( Volkuschulen')  of  Dresden. 
2  P.M.  Wrestling. 

8  P.M.  Announcement  of  the  victors. 

10  P.M.  Illumination  and  official  close  of  the  festival. 
From  5  P.M.  Music  and  dancing. 

Thursday,  July  23. 

Turner  excursions  (Turnfahrten)  to  the  Saxon  Switzerland,  and  other  points  of 

interest. 
From  3  P.  M.  Social  reunions  on  the  grounds  ;  music  and  dancing. 

The  festival  was  characteristically  German  in  its  object,  arrangements,  and  detailed 
workings.  It  afforded  an  admirable  opportunity  for  studying  national  traits  and  pe- 
culiar folk  customs,  and  furnished  abundant  evidence  of  the  sturdiness,  good  humor, 
and  order-loving  disposition  of  the  common  people,  as  well  as  of  their  genuine  liking 
for  and  ability  in  gymnastic  drill  and  gymnastic  games.  In  the  opinion  of  competent 
judges,  moreover,  a  very  considerable  increase  in  gymnastic  proficiency  over  that  ex- 
hibited at  any  former  festival  was  noticeable.  . 

It  concerns  us  here  to  note  only  the  more  striking  of  the  turning  exercises  and  reg- 
ulations, without  attempting  to  describe  the  festival  as  a  whole,  or  venturing  to  en- 
large upon  its  many  attractions  for  the  lover  of  the  picturesque  or  the  student  of  men, 
manners,  and  institutions. 

More  than  20,000  turners,  including  delegations  from  England,  France,  Russia, 
Holland,  Switzerland,  Austria,  Hungary,  Sweden,  and  the  .United  States,  took  part 
in  the  street  parade,  which  was  reviewed  by  the  King  of  Saxony  from  a  balcony  of 
his  palace  on  Sunday.  The  grounds  set  apart  for  the  use  of  the  turners  were  some- 
thing more  than  ten  acres  in  extent,  and  were  situated  in  the  outskirts  of  the  city,  ad- 
joining the  Grosser  Garten,  the  principal  park  of  the  King.  Chief  among  the  tem- 
porary buildings  erected  on  the  Festplatz  was  the  festival  hall,  with  an  estimated 
capacity  for  10,000  people.  The  main  part  of  this  hall  was  loft  unfloored,  so  that  in 
case  of  unfavorable  weather  all  the  heavy  gymnastics  might  take  place  under  cover. 

693 


166  CIRCULARS    OF    INFORMATION   FOR    1885. 

As  the  weather  was  fine  during  the  entire  continuance  of  the  festival,  the  hall  was  used 
chiefly  for  speech-making  and  merry-making,  and  the  turning  of  every  description 
was  carried  on  out  of  doors  on  the  Turnplatz,  which  had  an  area  of  more  than  three- 
quarters  of  an  acre. 

The  most  noteworthy  gymnastic  features  of  the  festival  were  as  follows  :  The  free 
gymnastics  (allgemeine  Freiiibungen)  on  Sunday;  the  class  turning  of  the  most  profi- 
cient turners  (Musterriegenturnen)  on  Sunday,  Monday,  and  Tuesday  ;  the  Kurturnen, 
or  exhibition  gymnastics,  on  Sunday  and  Monday ;  the  prize  turning  (  Wettturneu)  on 
the  last  three  days,  and  the  gymnastic  games  of  the  Dresden  school  children  on 

Wednesday. 

The  Free  Gymnastics. 

The  free  gymnastics  resemble  somewhat  the  "setting-up  drill"  employed  in  the 
United  States  Army,  inasmuch  as  they  are  bodily  movements  arranged  in  groups  of 
related  exercises,  which  are  executed  at  command  and  in  unison.  In  them  no  appa- 
ratus of  any  kind  is  made  use  of.  They  may  be  characterized  as  calisthenics  raised 
to  their  highest  power.  The  free  gymnastics  on  this  occasion  included  sixteen  differ- 
ent movements,  and  required  nearly  three-quarters  of  an  hour  for  their  completion. 
The  order  and  character  of  the  movements  had  been  determined  and  ordained  by  the 
proper  committee  of  the  Turnerschaft  months  before,  and  the  movements  had  been 
practiced  by  the  different  vereine  at  home,  but  only  there.  The  turners  who  took 
part  in  the  free  movements  numbered  4,544,  and  were  formed  in  seventy-one  "  open 
ranks"  of  sixty-four  men  each,  facing  toward  the  front,  the  distance  between  the 
"files"  being  a  full  arm's-length.  Facing  the  huge  class  was  a  high  platform,  on 
which  two  marvelously  expert  foreturners  first  executed  each  movement  in  sight  of 
the  class,  and  then,  at  signals  given  with  a  flag  by  the  turnwart  in  command  of  the 
class,  and  re-enforced  by  strokes  given  on  gongs  in  the  middle  of  the  field,  the  foreturu- 
ers  repeated  the  movement,  the  entire  body  of  4,500  men  following  in  unison.  The 
sight  of  4,500  bareheaded,  white-shirted  men,  many  of  them  grayheaded,  executing 
complicated  movements,  which  involved  tossing  of  the  arms,  bowing  and  bending 
of  the  trunk,  facing  now  this  way  and  now  that,  and  all  with  military  precision,  in 
nearly  perfect  time,  was  a  novel  and  inspiring  one.  The  free  movements,  on  Monday, 
of  the  Saxon  turners  and  the  Dresden  school-boys,  in  all  2,300  persons,  were  even  more 
complicated,  difficult,  and  picturesque  than  those  above  spoken  of.  The  King  and 
Queen  of  Saxony,  with  a  numerous  retinue  of  courtiers,  were  among  the  interested 
spectators  of  the  free  movements  on  Sunday. 

The  Class  Turning,  or  "  Musterriegenturnen." 

Class  turning  under  the  lead  of  a  foreturner  has  been  a  peculiar  feature  of  Volks- 
turnen  since  the  days  of  Jahn,  and  many  of  tie  machines  used  in  this  class  of  exercises 
were  devised  by  Jahn  and  his  early  followers.  Such  are  the  parallel  bars,  the  horizon- 
tal bar,  the  horse,  and  the  buck.  Only  the  most  proficient  member^  of  a  verein  are  al- 
lowed to  represent  it  in  the  Musterriegentumen.  At  Frankfort,  in  1880,  sixty-one  classes, 
or  squads,  were  entered  under  this  head.  At  Dresden  the  number  of  classes  entered 
was  two  hundred  and  seventy-six.  Of  these,  one  was  from  the  United  States,  one  from 
Belgium,  one  from  Denmark,  one  from  Hungary,  and  four  were  from  Holland ;  the  re- 
maining 268  were  from  within  the  Turnerschaft.  Of  the  276  classes  entered,  244,  com- 
prising 2,517  turners,  turned  and  were  reported  upon  by  the  judges.  The  number  of 
turners  in  a  class  varied  from  four  to  sixty-four ;  the  mean  number  was,  however,  nine. 
The  extremes  of  age  were  sixteen  and  seventy-one  years.  An  nnnsual  number  of  men 
past  middle  life  took  part  in  the  heavy  gymnastics.  There  were  fully  a  dozen  classes 
composed  of  men  over  forty  years  old,  and  nearly  three  hundred  men  over  thirty-five 
years  of  age  appeared  in  the  ranks  of  the  "  proficients."  The  class  of  the  "Eldest 
turners,"  numbering  eleven  men  between  the  ages  of  sixty  and  seventy-one,  engaged 
in  free  movements,  putting  the  stone,  and  high  leaping;  while  several  squads  of 
younger  veterans,  ranging  in  age  from  forty  to  sixty,  exercised  on  the  parallel  bare, 
694 


PHYSICAL    TRAINING    IN    AMERICAN    COLLEGES.  167 

the  horse,  and  the  inclined  ladder.  Yet  there  are  those  who  would  have  us  believe 
that  agility  and  bodily  force  in  adults  are  the  almost  sole  possession  of  the  modern 
Englishman  !  If  they  would  take  the  trouble  to  inform  themselves  in  regard  to  the 
national  games  of  the  Germans,  the  Norsemen,  and  the  Swiss,  they  would  learn  that 
the  athletic  vesture  of  the  ancient  Greeks  has  not  all  fallen  to  the  lot  of  the  British. 

Each  class  was  allowed  twenty  minutes  for  exercise,  and  machines  enough  were  pro- 
vided for  twenty  classes  to  exercise  at  a  time.  It  was  the  duty  of  the  judges  to  note 
and  report  upon  the  number,  age,  and  general  appearance  of  the  class  members ;  upon 
their  carriage,  marching,  and  clothing,  as  well  as  upon  the  worth  and  character  of  the 
exercises  chosen  by  them  and  the  degree  of  their  proficiency  in  the  exercises.  The 
ability  of  the  foreturner  and  his  use  of  technical  terms  (Tumsprache ;  this  has  at- 
tained the  proportion  of  a  special  dialect)  were  also  items  for  note  and  comment. 

The  scale  of  marks  for  the  actual  turning  ranged  from  5,  extremely  good,  through 
3,  barely  good,  to  0,  bad.  Of  the  244  classes  reported  on,  the  rating  of  the  judges  was 
as  follows : 

18  classes  were  marked  5. 

10  classes  were  marked  4  to  5. 

70  classes  were  marked  4. 

23  classes  were  marked  3  to  4. 

87  classes  were  marked  3. 

18  classes  were  marked  2  to  3. 

13  classes  were  marked  2. 
1  class  was  marked  1 . 

In  the  case  of  four  classes  the  report  was  incomplete. 

Some  notion  of  the  kind  of  exercises  chosen  may  be  gained  from  the  following 

statement : 

115  classen  turned  with  the  parallel  bars. 
51  classes  turned  with  the  horizontal  bar. 
51  classes  turned  with  the  horse. 

1  class  turned  with  the  buck. 

3  classes  turned  with  the  buck  and  horse. 

2  classes  turned  with  the  buck  and  horizontal  bar. 
6  classes  turned  with  the  flying  rings. 

2  classes  turned  with  the  jumping  table. 

1  class  turned  with  the  ladder. 

5  classes  engaged  in  wand  exercises. 

1  class  engaged  in  free  exercises. 

2  classes  engaged  in  wrestling. 

1  class  engaged  in  club  swinging. 
1  class  engaged  in  disk  throwing. 
1  class  engaged  in  casting  weights. 
1  class  engaged  in  marching  figures. 

Outside  of  the  class  of  professional  acrobats  and  of  the  ranks  of  the  Turnerbund  it 
•would  be  difficult,  if  not  impossible,  to  find  in  the  United  States  more  than  a  hand- 
ful of  men  who  could  compare  in  strength,  agility,  grace,  and  bodily  self-control, 
with  even  the  average  member  of  the  Mnsterriegen  of  the  Turnerschaft.  The  reason 
for  this  is  not  far  to  seek.  Those  who  aft'ect  gymnastics  in  America,  whether  for  rec- 
reation or  training,  are,  as  a  rule,  ill-taught  or  not  taught  at  all ;  While  in  Germany 
good  teaching  is  general  and  highly  appreciated. 

The  Prize  Turning,  or  "  Wettturnen." 

Thf  prizes  for  individual  excellence  in  heavy  gymnastics  consisted  simply  of 
wiTiiths  of  artificial  oak  leaves  and  diplomas.  Out  of  six  hundred  persons  whose 
names  were  entered  in  the  lists  of  competitors,  only  three  hundred  and  seventy-eight 

695 


168  CIRCULARS    OF    INFORMATION   FOR    1885. 

put  in  an  appearance.  In  1880,  at  Frankfort,  only  one  hundred  and  thirty  out  of  a 
list  of  one  thousand  entries  actually  competed  for  the  prizes.  Of  the  three  hundred 
and  seventy-eight  above  mentioned,  sixty-four  withdrew  before  the  completion  of 
the  competition,  mostly  on  account  of  blistered  hands  or  some  other  slight  ailment. 
Of  the  three  hundred  and  fourteen  turners  who  made  a  complete  record,  thirty-six 
were  adjudged  victors,  having  scored  at  least  fifty  points  out  of  a  possible  total  of 
seventy-five  points.  Two  of  the  victors  were  from  the  United  States.  All  the  victors 
received  wreaths  and  diplomas.  Under  the  rules,  only  the  first  eighteen  were  enti- 
tled to  wreaths,  but  on  account  of  the  exceptional  difficulty  of  the  exorcises  the  judges 
awarded  wreaths  to  the  second  eighteen  also.  The  best  record  made  was  sixty-one 
and  one-eighth  points.  Each  of  the  prize  turners  was  required  to  execute  three  exer- 
cises on  the  horizontal  bar,  three  on  the  parallel  bars,  and  three  on  the  horse.  Two 
exercises  on  each  of  these  machines  had  previously  been  ordained  by  the  committee  of 
the  Turuerschaft ;  the  third  in  each  was  left  to  the  individual  choice  of  the  compet- 
itors. Each  competitor  was  also  required  to  try  his  skill  in  three  selected  "national 
games."  Those  selected  by  the  committee  for  this  occasion  were  high  jumping,  long 
jumping,  and  weight  lifting. 

The  highest  attainable  mark  in  each  of  the  nine  "  machine  exercises  "  was  five,  and 
iii  each  of  the  national  games  ten.  Two  of  th«  victors  scored  five  on  the  horizontal 
bar ;  seven  scored  five  on  the  parallel  bars ;  but  none  scored  more  than  four  and 
seven-eighths  on  the  horse.  One  of  the  victors  scored  ten  in  high  jumping,  three 
scored  the  same  number  for  long  jumping,  and  ten  scored  ten  in  the  weight  lifting. 

The  victors  did  not  seem  to  be  men  of  phenomenal  muscular  development,  though 
it  should  be  said  that  the  turner  costume  of  loose  jacket  and  trousers  is  not  calcu- 
lated to  set  off  the  figure  to  the  best  advantage.  They  did,  however,  exhibit  an 
astonishing  power  of  executing  difficult  and  pleasing  feats — feats  which  called  fora 
combination  of  strength,  dexterous  agility,  prolonged  endurance,  close  attention,  pur- 
poseful daring,  and  cool  judgment.  They  illustrated  most  admirably  the  truth  of  the 

poet's  lines — 

It  is  not  growing  like  a  tree 

In  bulk,  doth  make  mail  better  be. 

The  qualities  which  make  "  the  better  man  "  among  athletes  and  gymnasts  are  moral 
and  mental,  rather  than  muscular,  iu  their  nature.  Muscular  action,  unless  it  be 
altogether  abnormal,  cannot  be  dissociated  from  mental  and  nervous  action.  Precise 
and  purposeful  movements  of  the  trunk  and  limbs  involve  the  possession  of  an  intelli- 
gent and  educated  nervous  system.  From  the  failure  of  parents  and  teachers  to  ap- 
prehend this  fact,  it  lias  come  to  pass  that  the  average  man  can  control  and  use  only 
fractional  parts  of  his  muscular  system.  The  German  turner's  aim  is  to  make  his 
entire  body  the  ready  servant  of  his  will,  and  every  Turnfest  demonstrates  the  fact 
that  he  has  achieved  an  encouraging  measure  of  success. 

Sword  play  and  wrestling  were  minor  attractions  of  the  festival.  Under  the  former 
head  were  included  contests  with  the  foils,  the  Schlager,  or  straight  sword,  such  as  is 
used  in  the  ordinary  students'  duel,  and  the  saber.  Such  contests  were  included  in 
the  programme  of  a  general  festival  of  the  Turnerschaft  for  the  first  time  at  Dresden. 
Twenty-eight  men  fought  with  the  foils,  fourteen  men  with  the  echliiger,  and  twenty 
men  with  the  saber.  Only  thirty-two  men  engaged  in  the  contests  in  wrestling.  Only 
such  turners  as  had  completed  the  twelve  exercises  ordained  for  the  prize  turning 
were  eligible  to  take  part  in  the  wrestling. 

On  Wednesday  the  Festplatz,  from  10  A.M.  till  noon,  was  given  up  to  the  games  of 
the  Dresden  school  children.  There  exists  a  general  but  erroneous  opinion  among 
foreigners  that  German  children  do  not  play,  though  the  history  of  the  kindergarten 
system  and  of  school  turning  affords  abundant  evidence  to  the  contrary.  Not  only 
have  the  Germans  a  great  variety  of  national  games  for  children  and  youth,  but  iu 
many  cases  they  have  made  vigorous  efforts  to  introduce  and  acclimatize  foreign 
games,  like  cricket  and  foot  ball.  Base  ball  and  lacrosse  are  apparently  unknown  to 
them.  In  some  cities,  and  notably  in  Berlin,  Dresden,  and  Frankfort,  special  efforts 
696 


PHYSICAL    TRAINING    IN    AMERICAN    COLLEGES.  169 

are  made  by  the  school  authorities  and  various  private  associations  to  secure  public 
play-grounds  for  tbe  children  of  all  classes,  and  inucli  has  been  accomplished  in  this 
direction.  No  ouo  could  witness  the  play  of  1,600  school  girls  and  ],'200  school  boys, 
under  the  lead  of  their  teachers,  on  the  Dresden  Festplatz,  and  deny  that  German 
children  arc  gamesome  as  well  as  tractable.  The  girls  played  at  catch,  running  races, 
ball,  skipping  rope,  etc.,  and  the  boys  engaged  in  foot  ball,  bat  and  ball,  tug  of  war, 
and  the  like.  As  a  rule,  the  German  school  and  city  authorities  provide  more  gener- 
ously and  intelligently  for  the  recreation  of  the  children  under  their  charge  than  is 
the  case  in  Great  Britain  or  America. 

SCHOOL  GYMNASTICS. 

We  pass  to  a  consideration  of  the  salient  facts  regarding  the  development  and  pres- 
ent organization  of  school  gymnastics  (Schultui-nen)  in  Germany,  particularly  in  Prus- 
sia, The  essential  differences  between  Volksturnen  and  Schulturnen  are  based  on  the 
fact  that  the  former  is  a  free  art,  originating  with  and  maintained  by  the  common 
people,  and  the  latter  is  a  discipline  imposed  by  authority  upon  persons  in  a  state  of 
pupilage.  The  ends  of  training  and  education  are  not  lost  sight  of  in  Volksturnen, 
but  in  Schulturnen  they  occupy  the  foreground. 

Although  Volksturnen  has  lost  many  of  the  extravagant  and  marked  peculiarities 
of  its  assertive  and  aggressive  youth,  and  has  become  better  regulated  and  systematized 
with  the  lapse  of  years,  it  still  bears  the  impress  set  upon  it  by  Jahu  and  the  times 
which  produced  him.  The  democratic  organization  of  the  turnvereine ;  the  volun- 
tary submission  of  the  turners  to  taxation,  drill,  and  discipline,  for  common  and  pa- 
triotic ends,  and  the  predilection  for  heavy  gymnastics  under  foreturners,  all  survive. 
The  turners  are  men  and  youths  who  devote  a  portion  of  their  spare  time,  particu- 
larly during  the  evening  hours  and  on  holidays,  to  the  exercises  of  the  turnplatz  and 
the  turnhalle,  for  the  sake  of  social  entertainment  and  the  promotion  of  health. 
Schulturnen,  on  the  other  hand,  is  a  department  of  instruction  in  the  educational 
system  ordained  by  the  state.  As  such,  it  is  administered  by  officers  of  the  state,  who 
aim,  by  means  of  a  graded,  progressive  series  of  bodily  exercises,  to  bring  about  the 
symmetrical  and  normal  development  of  pupils  of  both  sexes,  ranging  between  the 
ages  of  six  and  twenty. 

School  turning  works  in  the  interest  of  folk  turning  by  preparing  promising  re- 
cruits for  the  turnvereine,  and  the  turners  have  ever  been  its  zealous  friends,  doing 
much  to  secure  its  spread  and  to  enhance  its  usefulness. 

The  Work  and  Influence  of  Spiess. 

It  is  chiefly  to  Adolf  Spiess  and  his  followers  that  German  Schultnrnen  owes  its  most 
distinctive  and  valuable  peculiarities.  Spiess  was  a  Hessian,  born  in  1810.  Like  Jahn, 
he  was  a  pastor's  son  and  a  teacher.  In  his  father's  private  school,  which  was  con- 
ducted according  to  the  principles  of  Pestalozzi,  he  was  trained  in  gymnastics,  partly 
after  the  methods  of  Guts  Muths  and  partly  after  those  of  Jahn.  While  a  student  of  the- 
ology at  the  universities  of  Giessen  and  Halle,  he  was  an  active  turner  and  dn«list.  In 
1829  he  became  acquainted  with  Jahn.  In  the  following  year,  while  still  a  student,  he 
formed  a  class  of  boys  at  Giessen,  and  made  a  beginning  in  teaching  what  came  to  be 
known  as  "  common  exercises"  (Gemeiniibungen),  or  class  drill  "  in  standing,  walking, 
running,  and  jumping."  "Class  turning,"  consisting  in  the  simultaneous  performance 
by  a  number  of  persons,  either  with  or  without  the  aid  of  apparatus,  of  a  given  exercise 
at  the  word  of  command,  was  introduced  by  Spiess,  and  lies  at  the  foundation  of  his 
system  of  physical  training;  whereas  in  the  J.ahn-Eiselen  system  the  members  of  the 
class  followed  in  succession  the  example  set  them  by  their  foreturner. 

In  1833  Spiess  became  a  teacher  of  historj,  singing,  drawing,  and  turning,  in  the 
public  schools  of  Bnrgdorf,  a  town  in  the  canton  of  Bern,  in  Switzerland,  where  he 
became  intimate  with  Froebel.  Spiess  is  sometimes  called  the  "  creator  of  gymnas- 

697 


170  CIRCULARS    OF    INFORMATION   FOR    1885, 

tics  for  girls"  (Madclienturnni).  The  exercises  for  girlswhich  he  introduced  at  Burg- 
dorf were  chiefly  of  his  own  devising.  They  included  free  gymnastics,  dumb-bell  ex- 
ercises, and  exorcises  on  the  suspended  ladder  and  the  see-saw,  besides  a  variety  of 
exercises  in  running,  jumping,  and  swinging.  In  1844  ho  removed  to  Basel  tatake 
charge  of  the  gymnastic  instruction  in  the  higher  schools  of  that  city. 

In  184S  iSpifss  returned  to  Germany,  having  been  appointed  to  a  high  office  in  the> 
department  of  education  of  the  Grand  Duchy  of  Hesse,  and  took  up  his  residence  in 
the.  city  of  Darmstadt.  It  devolved  upon  Spiess  to  organize  and  supervise  school 
turning  throughout  that  state.  In  1849  and  1850  he  conducted  special  normal  classes 
for  the  purpose  of  preparing  trained  assistants  for  his  work.  At  Darmstadt,  as  at 
Basel  and  Burgdorf,  Spiess  was  highly  successful  in  introducing  gymnastics  into 
schools  for  girls.  He  died  in  1858. 

S-ness  based  his  theory  of  bodily  training  on  the  laws  of  anatomy  and  physiology., 
and  grouped  and  ordered  his  exercises  in  compliance  with  those  laws.  He  applied' 
his  principle  of  common  exercises  to  the  Jahn  heavy  gymnastics  as  well  as  to  the  free 
movements,  which  latter  were  often  made  to  music.  It  was  his  distinctive  work  to 
render  German  gymnastics  systematic  and  scientific,  and  to  adapt  them  to  pedagogi- 
cal purposes  and  methods.  As  a  teacher,  organizer,  and  writer,  his  influence  has  been 
wide  and  weighty.  His  principal  books  were  "Lehre  der  Turnkunst,"  Basel,  l840-'46, 
and  "Twrntnch  fiir  Schulen,"  Basel,  1846-'51. 

The  Rise  of  School  Gymnastics  in  Prussia. 

Allusion  has  already  been  inade  to  the  cabinet  order  of  June,  1842,  in  which  Fred- 
erick William  IV  formally  recommended  the  adoption  of  "bodily  exercise  as  an  in- 
dispensable integral  part  of  male  education"  throughout  the  Kingdom  of  Prussia. 
Eichorn,  the  minister  of  education,  by  an  ordinance  issued  in  February,  1844,  under- 
took to  carry  the  King's  recommendations  into  effect.  This  ordinance  directed  that  a 
sufficient  number  of  turnpliitze  and  turnhallen  should  be  established  to  furnish  all 
the  Gyranasien,  higher  burgher  schools,  and  normal  schools  for  males,  with  accommo- 
dations for  winter  and  summer  turning.  Those  in  charge  of  school  affairs  were  charged! 
to  do  their  utmost  for  the  promotion  of  the  new  department  of  instruction.  When  its 
was  feasible,  pupils  were  to  exercise  daily  for  an  hour  after  school.  At  least  the  af- 
ternoons of  Wednesdays  and  Saturdays  should  be  devoted  to  gymnastics,  on  whichi 
days  no  home  study  was  to  be  exacted.  In  the  "certificate  of  ripeness,"  given  at  the 
"leaving  examination,"  the  examiner  must  indicate  the  degree  of  gymnastic  ability 
attained  by  the  candidate. 

Spiess  had  an  interview  with  Eichoru  in  Berlin,  in  the  summer  of  184",  in  relation 
to  the  proper  mode  of  organizing  school  gymnastics,  and  there  seems  to  have  been  a 
somewhat  general  expectation  that  he  would  be  called  from  Burgdorf  to  Berlin. 
8piess  was,  however,  passed  by,  and  Massmann.  who  had  since  1827  been  engaged  in 
teaching  gymnastics  in  Munich,  where  the  sons  of  Ludwig  I,  King  of  Bavaria,  ami 
the  royal  corps  of  cadets  were  numbered  among  his  pupils,  was  in  1843  called  to  Ber- 
lin to  aid  Kichorn's  department  in  carrying  into  effect  the  views  expressed  in  the* 
King's  cabinet  order. 

Massmann  had  been  a  Berlin  turner  in  the  palmy  days  of  1811-'13,  and  was  strongly 
wedded  to  the  methods  of  Jahn  and  Eiselen.  He  looked  with  disfavor  upon  the  new 
methods  of  Spiess,  and,  not  being  endowed  with  sufficient  skill  or  energy  to  adapt 
Volksturnen  to  school  needs,  his  administration,  which  lasted  until  1850,  was,  on  the 
whole,  a  failure. 

A  serious  obstacle  to  the  success  of  gymnastics  in  the  schools  was  the  lack  of  com- 
petent teachers.  To  meet  this  want  the  Central  Normal  School  for  Training  Teach- 
ers of  Bodily  Exercises  was  opened  in  Berlin,  under  Massmann's  direction,  in  1848. 
Ifr.e >  school  died  in  1849.  In  1851  the  Royal  Central  Gymnastic  Institute,  with  par- 
.'  courses  of  instruction  for  officers  of  the  army  and  school  teachers,  was  established 
lin  under  the  conjoint  control  of  the  ministers  of  war  and  education,  and  Capt. 


PHYSICAL    TRAINING    IN    AMERICAN    COLLEGES.  171 

H.  Rothstein,  of  the  Prussian  army,  was  placed  at  its  head.  This  institute  has  exer- 
cised a  powerful  influence  upon  the  rise  of  military  and  school  turning  in  Prussia. 
Its  dual  constitution  remained  unchanged  until  the  year  1877 ;  since  then  two  sepa- 
rate training  schools  have  been  in  operation ;  the  one  for  army  officers  is  entitled  the 
^Koniyliche  Militdrturnanstalt ;  the  other,  for  teachers  of  turning  in  the  schools,  is 
termed  the  Konighche  Turnlehrerbildungsanstalt. 

Tiothsteiii  was  a  firm  partisan  of  the  Swedish  system  of  gymnastics  as  developed  by 
Ling  and  his  followers,  while  the  civilian  teachers  of  the  Central  Institute  either  fa- 
vored the  Jahn-Eiselen  system  or  a  compromise  between  it  and  that  of  Spiess.  Roth- 
steiu  banished  the  horizontal  and  parallel  bars  from  the  institute,  thereby  giving  rise 
to  a  long  and  bitter  controversy.  The  turners  and  their  champions  attacked  the 
Swedish  gymnastics  on  the  ground  that  they  were  too  formal,  one-sided,  and  unin- 
teresting, as  well  as  un-German  and  outlandish.  Medical  men  and  university  pro- 
tfessors  took  an  active  part  in  the  discussion  over  the  merits  and  faults  of  the  "  bar 
exercises."  Professors  Virchow  and  Du  Bois-Reymond,  of  tbe  Berlin  University, 
stood  up  for  German  gymnastics  and  the  "bars."  Finally,  in  December,  1862,  a  com- 
mission, composed  of  the  most  eminent  medical  men  in  Prussia,  declared  that  "the  bar 
exercises  might,  from  a  medical  point  of  view,  be  improved,  but  ought  not  to  be  done 
away  with."  The  triumph  of  the  "bar  exercises"  involved  the  defeat  of  the  Ling- 
Rothstein  system  of  school  turning.  In  1863  Rothstein  left  the  Central  Institute ;  in 
1865  he  died. 

In  1860  Lehnert,  then  minister  of  education,  issued  an  order  for  the  gradual  intro- 
duction of  gymnastic  instruction  into  the  elementary  schools  ( Volkaschulen)  for  boys. 
In  1862  attendance  upon  such  instruction  was  made  obligatory.  In  recent  years 
turning  has  become  quite  general  in  girls'  schools  of  all  grades.  It  is  obligatory  in 
female  normal  schools,  and  also  in  all  the  girls'  schools  of  some  cities,  for  example, 
those  of  Berlin,  Frankfort-on-the-Main,  and  Hanover. 

THE   ORGANIZATION   SCHOOLS  AND  ARMY. 

Popular  education  in  the  German  sense  involves  compulsory  attendance  upon  school 
instruction  and  compulsory  military  service.1  Speaking  broadly,  the  state  requires 
every  Prussian  child  to  go  to  school  for  eight  years,  and  every  Prussian  man  to  serve 
twelve  years  in  the  army.  In  order  to  render  clear  the  relation  which  physical  train- 
ing bears  to  school  training  on  the  one  hand,  and  to  military  training  on  the  other, 
in  the  Prussian  system  of  education,  we  must  first  give  some  account  of  the  organiza- 
tion of  the  Prussian  schools  and  army,  and  of  the  character  of  the  instruction  imparted 
in  each. 

The  population  of  Prussia  may  be  divided,  for  convenience,  into  three  classes:  (1) 
The  Volk,  which  includes  90  per  cent,  of  the  whole,  and  embraces  the  peasant 
class  and  unskilled  laborers  of  every  sort ;  (2)  the  middle  class,  embracing  the  burgher 
class,  the  farmers,  the  smaller  tradesmen  and  manufacturers,  skilled  mechanics,  and 
a  great  variety  of  petty  officials ;  (3)  the  scientifically  educated  or  upper  class.  To 
this  class  belong  the  officers  of  the  army,  professors  in  the  universities,  teachers  in 
the  schools  of  superior  instruction,  literary  men,  the  members  of  the  learned  profes- 
sions, the  great  landowners,  manufacturers  and  merchants,  and  officials  in  the  higher 
grades  of  the  civil  service. 

There  are  three  grades  of  schools  corresponding  to  the  social  classes  above  men- 
tioned: (1)  The  elementary  schools  (  Folksschulen) ;  (2)  tbe  intermediate  schools  (Mittel- 
scliulen),  including  the  so-called  "burgher  schools  "and  the  lower  Realschulm  ;  (3) 
the  higher  schools,  including  the  Gijmnasien,  Realgymnasien,  the  normal  training 
schools,  the  technical  schools,  and  the  universities. 

In  the  army  the  rank  and  file  (Soldaten)  are  drawn  from  the  Volk  ;  tbe  under-officers 
corresponding  to  our  non-commissioned  officers  come  mostly  from  the  middle  classes; 

' • — • -    •  •  •  •          — — —  '  i  . 

1  Prussia  pays  annually  not  far  from  $37,000,000  for  her  schools  and  $50.000,000  for  her  army. 

699 


172  CIRCULARS    OF    INFORMATION    FOR    1885. 

and  the  officers,  who  constitute  the  only  professional  military  class,  belong  to  the  upper 
class,  and  are  to  a  large  degree  of  noble  birth.  Regimental  schools  are  provided  for 
the  soldiers  ;  schools  of  a  higher  sort  for  the  under-officers ;  while  the  scientific  train- 
ing of  the  officer  class  is  carried  on  in  the  cadet  institutes,  the  war  schools,  and  the 
War  Academy. 

The  Schools. 

The  elementary  schools  in  the  larger  cities  and  towns  consist  usually  of  eight 
classes,  in  which  instruction  is  provided  for  children  between  the  ages  of  six  and 
fourteen.  The  complete  course,  which  is  not  always  enforced  in  the  remoter  country 
districts,  embraces  the  following  subjects :  Religion,  reading,  writing,  the  common 
rules  of  arithmetic,  the  rudiments  of  algebra,  the  elements  of  geometry,  history, 
drawing,  geography,  elementary  physics  and  natural  history,  German  composition 
and  grammar,  singing,  and  gymnastics.  Girls  are,  in  addition,  taught  sewing  and 
knitting. 

The  intermediate  schools  have  only  a  five  or  six  years'  course.  They  aim  at  giving 
a  practical  education,  supplementary  to  that  of  the  elementary  schools,  for  pupils  in- 
tending to  follow  technical,  industrial,  or  mercantile  pursuits,  or  who  look  forward 
to  subordinate  positions  in  the  civil  service.  French  and  English  are  taught  in  these 
schools,  but  the  ancient  languages  are  not. 

Both  the  Gymnasien  and  the  Realgymnasien  have  a  nine  years'  course,  in  classes 
designated  in  descending  order:  I.  A.,  or  Oberprima ;  I.  E.,  or  Unterprima  ;  II.  A., 
or  Obersecunda;  II.  B.,  or  Untersecunda ;  III.  A.,  or  Olertertia ;  III.  B.,  or  Unter- 
iertia  ;  IV.,  or  Quarto, ;  V.,  or  Quinta  ;  and  VI.,  or  Sexta. 

In  the  Gymnasien  much  attention  is  given  to  Greek  and  Latin,  while  French  and 
English  are  less  thoroughly  taught.  The  Gymnasium  graduates  usually  enter  the 
university  for  the  sake  of  preparing  themselves  to  enter  upon  a  career  in  one  of  the 
learned  professions,  or  in  one  of  the  higher  grades  of  the  civil  service. 

The  coune  of  the  Realgymnasien  differs  from  that  of  the  Gymnasien  in  that  Greek 
is  omitted,  and  that  more  stress  is  laid  upon  mathematics,  natural  sciences,  and  the 
modern  languages.  The  graduates  of  a  Realgymnasium  are  admitted  to  one  only 
of  the  university  faculties,  that  of  philosophy,  with  its  departments  of  natural  science 
and  modern  languages.  As  a  rule  they  pass  to  one  of  the  higher  technical  schools  in- 
stead of  to  the  university. 

The  normal  schools  for  teachers  are  of  the  nature  of  special  technical  schools  hav- 
ing a  three  years'  course.  Preparatory  schools  ( Vorschulen)  with  a  three  years' 
course  have  been  organized  in  connection  with  many  Gymnasien,  Realgymnasien, 
and  higher  girls'  schools,  so  that  children  of  the  upper  classes  need  not  mingle  with 
the  children  of  the  Volk  in  the  elementary  schools. 

The  Army. 

With  few  exceptions,  the  able-bodied  men  of  all  classes  are  liable  to  be  called  on 
for  military  service  as  soon  as  they  reach  the  age  of  twenty  and  until  they  have 
attained  the  age  of  forty-two.  The  term  of  active  service  "  with  the  colors"  is  three 
years,  during  which  period  the  soldier  is  continuously  subjected  to  military  discipline, 
and  is  liable  to  be  sent  to  the  field  in  case  of  war.  Then  follow  five  years  of  service 
in  the  reserve,  during  which  one  is  occasionally,  and  for  some  weeks  at  a  time, 
called  out  for  drill,  or  to  take  part  in  mobilization  or  the  annual  field  maneuvers. 
Men  in  the  reserve  are  liable  to  field  duty,  either  at  home  or  abroad,  in  case  of  war. 

In  the  Landwehr  the  term  of  service  is  four  years.  Service  with  the  colors  for  three 
years  and  in  the  reserve  for  five  is  considered  sufficient  to  make  a  trained  soldier  of  a 
man,  so  that  members  of  the  Landwehr  in  time  of  peace  are  released  from  active 
military  duty  of  any  kind.  They  are,  however,  organized  into  regiments,  and  must 
keep  their  arms  and  accouterments  in  readiness  for  instant  service.  The  Landwehr 
is  officered  mostly  by  men  from  the  middle  classes.  In  time  of  war  the  Landwehr  gar- 
700 


PHYSICAL    TRAINING    IN   AMERICAN   COLLEGES.  173 

risons  the  forts,  guards  the  frontier  and  the  prisoners  captured  from  the  enemy,  and 
covers  the  lines  of  communication  between  the  base  of  supplies  and  the  field  army. 
The  Landsturm,  composed  of  men  between  thirty-two  and  forty-two  years  of  age,  is 
only  called  out  for  purposes  of  defense  and  in  caae  of  great  need. 

The  German  Empire  can  mnster  1,300,000  trained  soldiers,  excluding  the  Landsturrn, 
of  the  different  states.  The  Prussian  army,  on  a  peace  footing,  numbers  more  than 
330,000  men  and  under-officers,  and  14,000  officers.  It  can  be  mobilized  for  field  serv- 
ice in  a  week. 

A  soldier  who  becomes  incapacitated  after  eight  years'  service  for  further  active 
service,  or  who  has  been  for  eighteen  years  in  active  service,  may  demand  a  certifi- 
cate recommending  him  for  such  a  place  in  the  civil  service  as  his  education  may  fit  him 
for.  Accordingly  schools  for  the  further  instruction  of  soldiers  in  reading,  writing, 
grammar,  geography,  arithmetic,  history,  and  drawing,  are  organized  in  every  regi- 
ment. Six  special  schools  for  the  higher  training  of  under-officers  are  also  maintained 
by  the  War  Department.  The  same  studies  as  those  pursued  in  the  regimental  schools, 
and  certain  other  special  subjects,  are  taught  in  the  under-officer  schools ;  but  the 
subjects  are  pursued  farther.  A  soldier  with  a  good  record,  if  he  is  intelligent  enough 
to  pass  the  examination  for  promotion  to  the  grade  of  under-officer  at  the  end  of 
twelve  years'  service,  i.  e.,  at  the  expiration  of  his  service  in  the  Landwehr,  becomes 
eligible,  is,  indeed,  a  sort  of  preferred  aspirant,  for  a  subordinate  post  in  the  civil 
service.  Such  positions  are  those  of  janitor,  messenger,  clerk,  etc.,  in  various  gov- 
ernmental bureaus  which  pertain  to  postal,  customs,  telegraph,  and  railroad  affairs. 
If  an  under-officer  possess  the  necessary  qualifications,  after  nine  years'  service  in  the 
army  and  at  least  five  years'  service  aa  an  under-officer,  he  may  be  appointed  a  gen- 
darme or  become  a  policeman.  Almost  all  the  offices  with  which  in  America  "the 
boys"  are  rewarded  for  yeoman  service  in  "politics,  "are  in  Prussia  given  as  rewards 
of  merit  and  intelligence  to  old  soldiers. 

The  Training  of  Officers. 

The  ordinary  course  of  procedure  by  which  a  civil  aspirant  attains  to  the  lowest  grade 
in  the  corps  of  Prussian  officers,  that  of  second  lieutenant,  is  as  follows :  (1)  He  is  nomi- 
nated an  avantageur  by  the  colonel  of  some  regiment;  (2)  he  serves  for  six  months 
in  the  ranks ;  (3)  he  passes  the  examination  for  promotion  to  the  grade  of  "  sword-knot 
ensign,"  (he  requirements  of  which  examination  are  practically  the  same  as  those  of  the 
"leaving  examination"  at  the  completion  of  the  course  in  a  Gymnasium  or  Realgym- 
nasiuin ;  (4)  then,  after  ten  months  of  professional  study  in  a  war  school  (Kriegsschulc), 
he  passes  the  " officers'  examination" ;  (5)  and  in  case  the  officers  of  the  regiment  to 
which  he  has  been  nominated  vote  favorably  upon  him,  he  is  commissioned  a  second 
lieutenant  by  the  King. 

Perhaps  a  third  of  those  who  enter  the  corps  of  officers  receive  their  preliminary 
education  aa  members  of  the  corps  of  cadets.  Since  1877  the  course  of  study  in  the 
cadet  institutes  haa  been  the  same  aa  that  followed  in  the  Realgymnasien.  There 
are  aix  lower  cadet  institutes  in  Prussia,  having  five  classes,  viz  :  VI.,  V.,  IV.,  III.  B., 
and  III.  A.  ;  and  one  chief  cadet  institute,  that  at  Lichterfelde,  near  Berlin,  having 
classes  which  correapond  to  II.  B.,  II.  A.,  I.  B.,  I.  A.,  of  a  Realgymnasium,  and  an 
advanced  class,  the  "  Selecta."  For  each  class  a  year's  work  is  laid  out.  Boys  from 
ten  to  fifteen  years  are  received  in  the  lower  cadet-schools.  The  corps  of  cadets  is 
largely  composed  of  the  sonn  of  officers.  It  numbers  2,088  members,  880  of  whom  are 
at  Lichterfelde.  All  of  the  cadet  institutes  are  organized  with  two  boards  of  in- 
structors, an  academic  board  of  civilians,  and  a  military  board  of  officers,  and  are 
subject  to  military  regulations.  The  discipline  is  strictest  in  the  chief  institute. 

A  premium  is  put  by  the  state  on  mental  training,  by  allowing  all  who  hold  certif- 
icates of  fitness  to  enter  Obersecunda  (II.  A. )  of  a  Gymnasium  or  Realgyumasium,  to  ab- 
solve their  service  with  the  colors  by  one  year's  volunteer  and  unpaid  service.  Fitness 

701 


174  CIRCULARS    OP    INFORMATION   FOR    1885. 

to  enter  Unterprima  (I.  B.)  entitles  one  to  stand  the  "sword-knot-ensign"  examina- 
tion on  completing  six  months'  service  as  "  avantageur"  in  the  ranks.  The  "certif- 
icate of  ripeness,"  i.  e.,  of  having  completed  satisfactorily  the  studies  of  Oberpriina 
(I.  A.),  admits  its  possessor  to  the  University  or  to  the  higher  civil  service  positions, 
and  exempts  "avantageurs"  from  the  "  sword-knot-ensign  "  examination. 

In  the  chief  cadet  institute,  at  Lichterfelde,  when  a  boy  is  seventeen  years  of  age 
•and  his  bodily  development  is  up  to  a  certain  standard,  if  he  has  passed  II.  A.,  i.  e.,  is 
ready  to  enter  Unterprima,  he  may  try  the  "sword-knot-ensign"  examination.  If  he 
pass  this  examination  he  may  (a)  begin  his  service  in  the  ranks  and  aspire  to  the  offi- 
cers' examination  at  the  end  of  the  required  course  of  study  in  a  war  school ;  or  (6) 
he  m'ay,  if  a  very  promising  youth,  be  admitted  to  the  Selecta ;  or  (c).  should  he  not 
aspire  to  an  officer's  career,  he  may  enter  the  ranks  as  a  volunteer  for  one  year  (Ein- 
jahrij-Freiwilliger).  Many  cadets  complete  the  course  laid  out  for  Unterprima  (I.  B.) 
in  order  to  be  eligible,  should  they  ever  leave  the  army,  to  positions  iii  the  higher 
grades  of  the  civil  service,  which  would  otherwise  be  closed  to  them  on  the  ground  of 
insufficient  education.  Should  he  complete  the  year  I.  A.  satisfactorily,  a  cadet  may 
enter  a  war  school  at  once,  being  then  exempt  from  serving  as  an  "avantageur,"  and 
from  passing  the  "  sword-knot-ensign"  examination.  If  he  pass  the  officers'  exami- 
nation, he  may  receive  his  commission  from  the  King  as  second  lieutenant  without 
being  voted  on  by  the  officers  of  a  regiment.  The  cadet  who  goes  successfully  through 
the  Selecta  is  not  required  to  enter  the  ranks,  or  even  to  attend  a  war  school,  but  is 
promoted  directly  from  the  corps  of  cadets  to  that  of  officers. 

There  were  formerly  nine  war  schools  for  the  special  preparation  of  civil  aspirants 
for  the  officers'  examination.  Within  recent  years  they  have  been  consolidated  to 
three.  The  ten-months'  course  of  study  in  the  war  schools  is  of  a  strictly  professional 
nature,  such  subjects  as  tactics,  fortification,  siege  practice,  and  the  like,  being  in- 
cluded in  it.  Concerning  the  physical  training  in  the  cadet  and  war  schools  we  shall 
speak  under  the  head  of  Military  Turning. 

The  War  Academy  (Eriegsalcademie)  in  Berlin  is  the  central  scientific  school  of  the  Ger- 
man army.  At  the  most,  only  three  hundred  officers  may  attend  its  classes,  each  class 
in  the  three  years'  course  being  limited  to  one  hundred  members.  Only  officers  who 
have  served  three  full  years  with  the  troops,  and  are  recommended  by  their  colonels 
as  men  of  exceptional  energy,  character,  and  intelligence,  are  allowed  to  attempt  the 
severe  entrance  examination  in  mathematics,  history,  geography,  military  science, 
and  the  French  language.  Nine  months  of  each  year  of  the  course  are  devoted  to 
scientific  instruction,  which  consists  of  lectures  of  the  most  advanced  character  giveu 
by  civilian  and  military  professors,  while  the  remaining  three  months  are  yearly 
given  up  to  practical  studies  in  topographical  engineering  and  general  staff  duty, 
and  in  familiarizing  the  student  with  other  arms  of  the  service  than  his  own.  The 
course  at  the  War  Academy  is  so  severe,  its  examinations  and  practical  tests  so  minute 
and  searching,  that  only  a  very  few,  the  "best  of  the  best,"  are  able  to  pass  into  the 
charmed  circle  of  the  general  staff,  under  Field  Marshal  Von  Moltke.  The  men  com- 
posing the  general  staff  of  the  Prussian  army  are  the  consummate  flower  of  Prussian 
education.  As  a  corps  they  are  unrivaled,  and  the  individuals  are  few  anywhere  who 
possess  trained  powers  of  mind  and  body  in  anything  like  so  high  a  degree. 

SCHOOL  GYMNASTICS. 

As  regards  physical  training  in  the  schools  of  Prussia,  the  case  stands  thus :  Attend- 
ance upon  instruction  in  turning  is  exacted  of  all  unexcused  pupils  for  two  hours 
weekly  in  all  schools  for  boys,  and  also,  in  some  cities,  in  all  schools  for  girls.  As  a  rule, 
each  school  has  its  own  turnhalle,  and  in  very  many  cases  its  own  turnplatz,  furnished 
with  appropriate  gymnastic  machines.  Some  cities,  for  instance,  Frankfort-on-the- 
Maiu,  provide  special  playgrounds  and  swimming  baths  for  the  use  of  school  children. 

While  gymnastic  drill  is  not  universal  in  the  public  schools,  it  is  very  general.  As 
might  be  expected,  it  is  more  common  and  better  provided  for  in  the  cities  than  in  the 
702 


PHYSICAL    TRAINING   IN   AMERICAN   COLLEGES.  175 

Country.  In  1882  only  ten  percent,  of  the  pupils  in  the  higher  schools  for  boys  were 
excused  from  turning,  and  they  were  excused  on  the  certificates  of  physicians  that 
the  exercise  would  be  prejudicial  to  their  health;  only  eighteen  percent,  of  this  class 
of  schools  were  obliged  to  discontinue  turning  in  winter  through  having  no  proper 
turnhalle,  and  sixty  per  cent,  of  them  possessed  a  tnrnhalle. 

In  the  course  of  study  each  class  has  its  special  time  for  gymnastics,  just  as  it  has 
special  hours  set  for  arithmetic  and  reading,  and  in  the  majority  of  cases  the  instruction 
is  given  by  one  of  the  ordinary  class  teachers,  and  not  by  a  special  teacher  of  turn- 
ing. The  amount  of  time  devoted  to  turning,  singing,  and  drawing,  is  usually  the 
same,  viz,  two  hours  weekly. 

The  exercises  are  carefully  adapted  to  the  age  and  sex  of  the  pupils.  The  youngest 
pupils,  from  six  to  ten  years  old,  engage  in  a  great  variety  of  simple  games,  easy, 
free  movements,  marching,  jumping,  and  climbing  exercises,  and  the  fundamental 
exercises  on  the  easier  gymnastic  machines.  In  free,  light,  and  heavy  gymnastics 
the  exercises  grow  more  complicated  and  difficult  with  the  advaucing  age  of  the 
pupil.  The  expertness  of  the  boys  in  the  upper  classes  is  often  quite  astonishing, 
lu  the  Gymnasien  and  Realgymnasien  fencing  is  taught  in  the  upper  classes.  Pedes- 
trian tours,  skating  parties,  and  excursions  into  the  woods  are  frequently  made  under 
the  lead  of  those  who  teach  turning.  The  gymnastic  course  for  girls  comprises  tho 
ordinary  free  gymnastics;  class  gymnastics  wi th  "hand  apparatus,"  such  as  dumb- 
bells, wands,  and  skipping  ropes;  marching,  dancing,  and  balancing  exercises;  vari- 
ous games  of  ball,  easyjumping,  swinging,  andclimbing;  and  a  few  of  the  simplest  ex- 
ercises on  the  parallel  and  horizontal  bars.  Singing,  especially  during  the  march  and 
the  minuet,  is  frequently  engaged  in  during  the  hour  given  to  gymnastic  instruction. 

In  nearly  every  university,  voluntary  associations  of  students  are  formed  to  practice 
turning.  The  university  massers  of  sword-play  and  riding  are  survivals  from  feudal 
times. 

SCHOOL  GiMNASTICS  IN  BERLIN. 

Iii  1881  there  were  4,815,974  children  of  school  age  in  a  total  population  of  27,250,000 
in  the  Kingdom  of  Prussia.  The  number  of  teachers  was  over  61,000.  The  population 
of  Berlin  in  1880  was  1,122,330.  The  total  number  of  pupils  in  schools  of  every  kind 
iu  the  city  was  more  than  149,000,  of  wliom  not  more  than  25,000  were  in  private 
schools.  In  schools  wholly  maintained  at  the  city's  expense,  there  were  104,720  pu- 
pils. Of  70  tumanstalten,  9  were  under  royal  patronage,  including  the  MilHur- 
turnanstalt,  the  Turnlehrerbildungsanstalt,  and  the  gymnasia  belonging  to  the  Royal 
Asylum  for  the  Blind  and  the  Royal  Institution  for  the  Deaf  and  Dumb.  Of  the  62 
turnhallen  belonging  to  the  city,  41  had  turnpliitze  adjoining  or  near  to  them  ;  2  be- 
longed to  higher  schools  for  girls ;  11  belonged  to  higher  schools  for  boys ;  and  48  be- 
longed to  schools  of  the  grade  of  Volksschulen  (termed  in  Berlin  Gemeindeschulen*) ;  and 
1  belonged  to  the  Berlin  Orphan  Asylum.  The  city  paid  nearly  $50,000  in  1880-'8l 
for  the  instruction  given  its  school  children  in  gymnastics,  which  sum  is  equal  to 
about  one  twenty -third  of  its  total  expenditure  for  schools  in  that  year. 

In  June,  1885,  Berlin  provided  free-school  instruction  for  some  143,000  children, 
which  shows  an  increase  of  10,000  over  the  corresponding  class  in  1884.  On  the  same 
date  the  city  had  148  Gemeindeschulen  iu  operation,  and  buildings  for  8  more  in  process 
of  construction.  The  new  school-houses  are  provided  with  turuhallen. 

The  present  number  of  city  turnhallen  used  for  educational  purposes  in  Berlin  is  98. 
The  largest  of  them  is  the  Stadtische  Tiirnlialle,  iu  the  Priuzenstrasse.  This  was  estab- 
lished in  1864;  its  cost  was  as  follows:  for  land,  including  a  turnplatz,  99,000  marks; 
building,  254,000  marks;  apparatus,  18,000  marks;  total,  371,000  marks,  or  $92.750. 
The  building  is  of  brick,  and  consists  of  two  three-story  wings  and  a  one-story  main 
hall.  The  wings  contain  residence  flats  for  the  use  of  the  officials  charged  with  the 
oversight  and  direction  of  school  gymnastics.  The  main  hall  is  150  feet  long,  75  feet 
wide,  and  48  feet  high,  and  easily  accommodates  400  turners  at  a  time.  Adjoining  it 

703 


176*  CIRCULARS    OF    INFORMATION   FOR    1886. 

is  a  well-appointed  turnplatz,  with  an  area  of  more  than  half  an  acre,  which  is  planted 
with  shade  trees.  The  City  Turuhalle  is  open  every  day  and  evening,  and  is  used  at 
appointed  times  hy  several  of  the  Berlin  turnvereiue,  also  hy  the  association  of  Berlin 
teachers,  the  royal  firemen,  the  normal  classes  for  teachers  of  turning,  and  by  eight 
of  the  city  schools  for  school  turning.  In  all,  more  than  13,000  persons  exercise  here 
weekly.  The  annual  appropriation  for  its  maintenance,  exclusive  of  salaries,  is  be- 
tween  $2,500  and  $3,000. 

As  a  rule,  the  school  gymnasia  in  Germany  are  separate  and  specially  designed 
buildings,  and  not  refitted  rooms.  As  a  class,  the  German  gymnasia  are  not  so  luxuri- 
ously fitted  or  so  architecturally  imposing  as  many  of  the  newer  American  college 
gymnasia,  but  they  are  admirably  adapted  to  the  teaching  of  free  and  class  gymnas- 
tics of  every  description.  As  much  as  possible  the  apparatus  is  adjustable  and  port- 
able. A  plain,  one-story,  brick  turnhalle,  60  by  33  feet  and  15  to  20  feet  high,  can 
bo  built  in  Germany  at  a  cost  of  $5,000,  and  well  furnished  with  apparatus  for  $1,000. 

The  city  of  Frankfort-on-the-Main,  which  is  about  the  size  of  Washington,  D.  C., 
spends  yearly  about  $27,000  for  the  gymnastic  instruction  of  its  school  children,  some 
18,000  in  number.  About  one-third  of  this  sum  goes  toward  the  furtherance  of  turn- 
spiele.  Boys  and  girls,  unless  excused  on  a  physician's  certificate,  have  two  hours' 
weekly  instruction  in  turning,  and  two  hours  weekly  of  compulsory  play  besides. 
The  majority  of  the  school  children  in  Frankfort  are  also  taught  and  practiced  in 
swimming  under  the  auspices  of  the  city. 

In  this  connection  the  following  facts  regarding  the  Volksschulen  of  Vienna  may  be 
of  interest:  In  1882- '83  Vienna,  whose  population  in  1880  was  704,756,  had  72,912 
pupils  in  its  135  Volksschuleu.  Of  this  number  44,614  (20,047  of  whom  were  girls) 
practiced  turning  under  the  guidance  of  658  teachers.  The  city  paid  for  the  teach- 
ing of  turning  and  the  care  of  the  turnhallen,  in  1882-'83,  a  sum  equal  to  $34,860,  or  one- 
twenty-ninth  as  much  as  its  total  ordinary  expenditure  for  the  Volksschnlen. 

THE   TRAINING  OF   TEACHERS   OF  TURNING. 

The  teachers  of  gymnastics  in  Prussia,  indeed  throughout  Germany,  are  specially 
trained  for  their  duties.  They  are  not,  as  is  too  often  the  case  in  England  and  America, 
retired  drill  sergeants,  broken  down  athletes,  or  merely  enthusiastic  gymnasts.  There 
are,  it  is  said,  more  than  1,000  teachers  in  Berlin  alone  who  are  competent  to  give 
instruction  in  turning.  According  to  the  regulations  now  in  force,  in  order  to  be  in- 
stalled as  a  teacher  of  turning  iu  a  Prussian  school,  one  must  first  pass  a  satisfactory 
examination  and  secure  a  certificate  of  fitness ;  such  certificates  must  be  obtained  at 
Berlin,  and  from  one  of  two  sources,  viz.,  the  Konigliohe  Turnlehrerbildungsanstalt, 
or  the  Turnltltrer  Prufungs  Kommission.  The  latter  is  simply  an  examining  board, 
originally  established  in  1867,  which  holds  examinations  for  male  candidates  annually 
in  February,  and  for  female  candidates  in  the  spring  and  autumn  of  each  year. 

The  Turulehrerbildungsanstalt  holds  two  examinations  yearly,  one  at  the  end  of  its 
winter  course  of  instruction  for  male  teachers,  the  other  at  the  end  of  its  spring  and 
summer  course  for  female  teachers.  Those  who  take  the  examinations  set  by  the 
Kouimission  are  mostly  teachers  who  have  attended  courses  in  turning  at  a  normal 
school,  or  have  received  special  training  in  classes  formed  for  the  purpose  by  the 
educational  authorities  of  one  of  the  provincial  cities ;  some  are  university  students 
who  look  forward  to  a  teacher's  career. 

At  the  examination  held  by  the  Kommissiou  in  November,  1884,  43  women  passed; 
at  that  held  iu  February,  1885,  39  men  passed,  8  of  whom  were  pronounced  fit  to  teach 
swimuiiug  us  well  as  turning ;  83  women  were  passed  at  the  examination  in  May,  1885. 
The  number  of  males  who  completed  the  winter  course  of  instruction  at  the  Turnlehrer- 
bildungsanstalt  and  secured  the  certificate  of  fitness  to  teach  turning  was  71,  of  whom 
42  were  passed  al&o  in  swimming ;  while  the  number  of  women  who  were  passed  at 
the  close  of  the  course  given  in  April,  May,  and  June,  1885,  was  82,  of  which  number 
28  took  the  course  of  instruction  in  swimming. 
704 


PHYSICAL    TRAINING   IN   AMERICAN    COLLEGES.  177 

The  examinations  of  the  board  of  examiners  of  teachers  of  turning  (Turnlelirer 
Priifungs  Kommissiori)  are  conducted  by  a  board  consisting  of  the  principal  teachers 
belonging  to  the  Turnlehrerbildungsanstalt  and  other  teachers  of  turning  named  by 
the  Minister  of  Education.  The  board  seldom  exceeds  five  in  the  number  of  its  mem- 
bers. The  teacher  of  anatomy  in  the  Bildungsanstalt  takes  part  in  the  examination 
of  male  candidates,  and  a  female  teacher  of  turning  is  always  a  member  of  the  board 
when  women  are  examined.  The  candidates  are  of  three  classes :  (a)  Those  who  have 
already  been  found  competent  to  be  installed  as  teachers  in  the  schools ;  (7;)  students 
who  have  completed  five  semesters  at  a  university ;  (c)  persons  of  sufficient  age 
(twenty  years  in  the  case  of  men,  eighteen  years  in  that,  of  women),  not  teachers, 
who  have  had  a  good  school  education. 

The  examinations  are  both  theoretical  and  practical.  The  theoretical  examinations 
are  both  written  and  oral.  The  written  examination  consists  in  the  preparation, 
within  a  limited  time  and  without  the  assistance  of  books  or  persons,  of  a  thesis  on 
such  questions  relating  to  school  gymnastics  as  the  examiners  may  select.  •  The  can- 
didate is  examined  orally  on  his  knowledge  in  relation  to  the  most  important  points 
in  the  history  of  turning,  particularly  of  school  turning ;  in  the  literature  and  tech- 
nical language  of  turning;  on  the  kinds  of  exercise  adapted  to  pupils  of  different 
ages  and  states  of  proficiency ;  on  the  principles  involved  in  the  construction  and  use 
of  the  various  gymnastic  appliances ;  on  human  anatomy,  physiology,  and  hygiene, 
and  their  relation  to  gymnastics  ;  and  on  the  means  of  rendering  first  aid  to  the  in- 
jured. In  the  practical  examination  the  candidate  is  required  to  show  what  degree 
of  expertness  he  possesses  in  the  exercises  made  use  of  in  school  turning. 

THE   ROYAL  INSTITUTE  FOR  TRAINING  TEACHERS   OP   TURNING. 

As  has  already  been  stated,  this  institution,  known  as  the  civil  section  of  the  Cen- 
tralturnanstalt  till  1877,  dates  from  1851.  Since  the  separation  of  the  military  and 
civil  sections  in  1877,  the  latter  has  been  known  as  the  Konigliclie  Turnlehrerbilditnga- 
anstalt.  Prof.  Dr.  Carl  Euler,  who,  though  not  the  titular  "director"  of  the  Bil- 
dungsanstalt, actually  directs  its  daily  affairs,  is  a  highly  accomplished  teacher,  and 
one  of  the  best  known  German  writers  on  turning.  He  has  occupied  his  present  po- 
sition as  the  chief  normal  teacher  of  turning  in  Prussia  since  the  year  1860,  when  he 
was  called  from  Schulpforta  to  take  charge  of  the  civil  section  of  the  Centralturn'- 
anstalt,  of  which  Rothstein  was  then  the  head.  The  writer  is  deeply  indebted  to  Pro- 
fessor Euler  and  his  assistant,  Oberlehrer  Eckler,  for  many  kindnesses  and  much 
valuable  information  concerning  gymnastics  in  Berlin  and  Prussia.  Messrs.  Euler 
and  Eckler  not  only  conduct  most  of  the  theoretical  courses  in  the  Bildungsanstalt 
(with  the  exception  of  the  course  in  anatomy  and  physiology,  which  is  given  by  Dr. 
Hoffmann),  but  they  are  also  charged  with  the  inspection,  as  regards  turning,  of  the 
schools  in  all  the  provinces  of  Prussia.  The  nnmber  of  assistant  teachers  in  the 
Bildungsanstalt  varies  with  the  number  of  pupils  from  year  to  year.  In  the  winter 
course  of  1883-'84,  five  male  assistants  were  connected  with  the  institute,  and  an  equal 
number  of  female  assistants  gave  practical  instruction  in  the  summer  course  of  1884. 
The  winter  course  for  men  begins  in  October  of  each  year,  and  lasts  six  months;  the 
course  for  women  begins  at  the  close  of  the  Easter  vacation. and  continues  for  three 
months. 

Since  1879  the  institute  has  occupied  a  building  of  its  own  at  229  Friedrichsstrasse. 
This  building  is  a  model  one  of  its  kind.  It  consists  of  a  main  building  two  stories 
high,  with  an  L  one  story  high.  On  the  first  floor  there  are,  besides  several  reception 
rooms  and  the  living  rooms  of  the  janitor,  three  rooms  appropriately  fitted  for  gym- 
nastic exercises.  One  in  the  main  building  is  for  the  use  of  girls  and  women,  and  is 
65  feet  long,  32. 5  feet  wide,  and  17.8  feet  high ;  another,  for  the  use  of  school  children 
belonging  to  the  model  classes,  is  81.25  feet  by  40.6  feet ;  and  the  third,  for  the  use  of 
males,  is  91  feet  by  47.7  feet.  The  principal  rooms  on  the  second  floor  in  the  main 

5068— No.  5 12  705 


178  CIRCULARS    OF    INFORMATION   FOR    1885. 

building  are  the  waiting  and  cloak  rooms,  a  large  office,  two  lecture  rooms,  a  museum 
containing  a  collection  of  models  of  a  great  variety  of  gymnastic  appliances,  and  a 
library. 

The  examinations  of  the  Turnlehrer  Priifungs  Kommission  are  held  in  the  rooms  of 
the  Bildmigsanstalt. 

Courses  of  lectures  are  given  in  anatomy,  physiology,  and  dietetics ;  on  first  aid  to 
the  injured;  on  the  history  of  bodily  exercises  and  the  science  and  methods  of  turning; 
and  on  the  construction  and  use  of  apparatus.  The  practical  instruction  comprises 
lessons  and  practice  in  free  gymnastics;  exercises  with  "hand  apparatus" — dumb 
bells,  wands,  and  the  like;  exercises  on  the  heavy  gymnastic  appliances;  fencing  and 
sword-play,  and  swimming.  The  pupils  of  the  institute  are  required  to  conduct 
classes  in  gymnastics,  under  the  supervision  of  their  instructors,  in  several  of  the  city 
schools.  As  might  be  expected,  numerous  systematic  works  in  the  form  of  handbooks 
and  manuals  on  all  branches  of  turning  have  been  published. 

The  systems  of  school  turning  in  the  other  states  of  the  German  Empire  do  not  dif- 
fer very  widely  or  essentially  from  that  in  vogue  in  Prussia.  Each  of  the  principal 
states,  too,  maintains  a  Turnlehrerbildungsanstalt.  There  is  one  at  Dresden,  for 
the  Kiugdom  of  Saxony,  which  dates  from  1850 ;  that  at  Stuttgart,  for  the  Kingdom 
of  Wiirtemberg,  was  founded  in  1862 ;  that  for  the  Grand  Duchy  of  Baden,  at  Carls- 
ruhe,  was  established  in  1869 ;  and  the  one  at  Munich,  for  the  Kingdom  of  Bavaria, 
was  opened  in  1872. 

MILITARY  TURNING. 

Gymnastic  exercises  constitute  a  considerable  and  important  part  of  the  prelimi- 
nary training  of  officers  in  the  cadet  and  war  schools,  and  of  the  drill  to  which  re- 
cruits and  soldiers  in  the  army  are  subjected.  Military  drill  of  the  technical  and 
special  sort  is  not  a  prominent  feature  in  the  course  of  the  six  preparatory  schools  for 
cadets  (  Voranatalten  des  Cadeiten  Corps),  whose  pupils,  from  ten  to  fifteeen  years  of 
age,  are  arranged  in  five  classes,  corresponding  to  the  classes  Sexta  to  Tertia,  inclusive, 
of  a  Realgymnasium.  The  boys  of  the  lower  classes  have  gymnastic  instruction 
adapted  to  their  age  and  strength,  and  are  encouraged  to  engage  in  out-of-door  sports, 
such  a*  foot  ball,  tug  of  war,  and  snowballing,  during  their  play  hours.  Only  the 
boys  in  Unter-  and  Obertertia  are  allowed  to  drill  with  muskets.  At  Lichterfeldo  the 
eight  hundred  and  eighty  youths  are  organized  as  four  battalions  of  infantry,  and 
much  attention  is  given  to  infantry  drill  and  evolutions,  target  practice,  gymnas- 
tics, fencing,  and  riding.  The  pupils  in  the  war  schools  are  also  thoroughly  drilled  in 
the  above-mentioned  branches  of  physical  training.  Two  hundred  lieutenants  are 
annually  trained  as  leaders  of  military  turning  at  the  Konigliclie  Militarturnamtalt  in 
Berlin. 

Gymnastics  are  also  taught  in  the  HiUtarreitinslitut  at  Hanover.  This  'institute 
includes  a  riding  school  for  officers  and  a  riding  school  for  under-officers.  The  pupils 
in  the  former  are  lieutenants,  and  in  the  latter  under-officers,  who  are  mostly  detailed 
from  the  Prussian  cavalry,  though  a  few  are  drawn  from  the  field  artillery.  The 
number  detailed  annually  to  each  school  is  eighty-three.  The  majority  of  these  re- 
turn to  their  regiments  after  a  year's  instruction,  while  the  remainder,  twenty-nine 
officers  and  twenty-eight  under-officers,  stay  a  second  year  at  the  institute. 

The  Militarturnanstalt. 

The  system  of  gymnastic  instruction  originally  adopted  as  an  essential  factor  in 
the  training  of  the  Prussian  soldier  was  that  of  Ling.  In  1845  General  Von  Boyen, 
the  Minister  of  War,  who  had  three  years  before  joined  his  colleagues,  Von  Rochow, 
Minister  of  the  Interior,  and  Eichorn,  Minister  of  Education,  in  urging  upon  the  King 
the  views  expressed  in  the  epoch-making  cabinet  order,  sent  two  officers,  one  of  whom 
was  Rothstein,  to  investigate  the  nature  and  working  of  the  Swedish  system  of  gym- 
nastics, especially  as  regarded  its  military  side.  Rothstein  and  his  companion  re- 
706 


PHYSICAL    TKAIX1XG    IN    AMERICAN    COLLEGES.  179 

paired  to  Stockholm,  went  through  the  regular  ten  months'  course  of  instruction  in 
the  Royal  Central  Gymnastic  Institute,  which  had  heen  in  operation  since  1814,  and 
graduated  as  teachers  of  Ling's  gymnastics.  They  then  spent  three  months  at  Copen- 
hagen in  the  Danish  Royal  Central  Institute,  whose  date  of  establishment  is  1806. 
They  returned  to  Berlin  in  June,  1846,  and  early  in  1847  the  War  Department  adopted 
the  main  recommendations  of  their  report  by  ordering  the  establishment  of  a  Prussian 
central  institute  for  the  gymnastic  instruction  of  the  army.  This  institute  was 
opened  in  Berlin  October  1,  1847,  with  eighteen  officers  as  pupils.  The  revolutionary 
outbreak  of  1848  caused  the  suspension  of  the  institute  for  three  years.  In  1851  the 
Konigliche  Centralturnanstalt,  to  which  allusion  has  already  been  made,  was  opened 
in  Berlin  with  Rothstein  at  its  head. 

Although  Rothstein's  opponents  were  able  to  defeat  his  efforts  to  supersede  the 
Jahn-Eiselen  and  Spiess  gymnastics,  as  regarded  school  gymnastics,  the  system  of 
military  gymnastics  introduced  by  Rothstein  was  never  fully  abandoned  by  the  War 
Department.  In  the  Militarturnanstalt  of  to-day  one  does  not  find  the  horizontal 
bar  or  the  parallel  bars  in  use  ;  and  various  pieces  of  gymnastic  apparatus  are  still 
used  there  and  throughout  the  army,  which  are  seldom,  if  ever,  used  in  Volksturnen  or 
Schulturnen. 

Two  five«-months'  courses  are  annually  given  at  the  Militarturnanstalt.  The  num- 
ber of  officers  enrolled  at  one  time  as  pupils  is  usually  one  hundred.  Lieutenant- 
Colonel  Von  Dresky  is  at  present  the  director  of  the  institution.  His  assistants,  in- 
cluding a  medical  officer  who  lectures  on  anatomy  and  physiology,  are  all  army  offi- 
cers. Practical  instruction  is  given  in  free  gymnastics,  heavy  gymnastics,  jumping, 
sword-play,  bayonet  exercise,  and  in  what  may  be  termed  "  applied  military  gymnas- 
tics" (Hindernissturnen'),  in  which  squad  exercises  in  clearing  ditches  and  scaling 
intrenchments,  walls,  and  spiked  fences,  occupy  a  prominent  place.  The  training 
given  at  the  Militiirturnanstalt  is  such  that  those  officers  who  complete  its  course 
are  thoroughly  fitted,  on  returning  to  their  regiments,  to  give  practical  instruction 
to  their  subordinates. 

In  the  gymnastic  drill  of  the  troops,  the  nnder-officers  play  an  important  part ;  but 
they  learn  and  perform  their  duties  as  teachers  of  gymnastics  under  officers  who  have 
had  the  benefit  of  the  Berlin  course.  All  officers  of  infantry  are  required  to  be  fa- 
miliar with  the  principles  of  military  gymnastics,  and  the  younger  officers  must  be 
able  to  teach  and  practice  them.  • 

'    Peculiarities  of  Military  Turning. 

The  following  statements,  derived  from  the  latest  "Vorschriften  iiberdas  Turnen  der 
Infanterle,"  may  serve  to  indicate  the  salient  features  of  military  turning,  at  leaat  so 
far  as  the  infantry  arm  of  the  service,  which  includes  more  than  230,000  men  and 
officers,  is  concerned : 

Gymnastic  exercises  constitute  an  essential  factor  in  the  military  training  of  the 
individual  man.  They  should  not  only  increase  the  strength,  agility,  and  endurance 
of  his  body,  but  should  strengthen  his  will  power,  resolution,  self-confidence,  aud 
courage,  and  call  forth  a  healthy  spirit  of  emulation.  In  order  to  attain  these  ends, 
the  soldier  must  be  taught  the  natural,  sure,  and  energetic  use  of  his  limbs  by  means 
of  properly  devised  exercises.'  These  exercises  are  divided  into  (a)  free- and  weapon 
exercises,  (6)  exercises  with  gymnastic  machines  (Eustiibungen),  and  (c)  exercises  in 
applied  turning,  by  which  are  understood  exercises  to  render  soldiers  able  to  surmount 
artificial  or  natural  obstructions  in  the  field. 

Turning  should  be  practiced  by  all  the  men  from  the  beginning  of  their  term  of 
service,  due  regard  being  had  to  individual  peculiarities  and  circumstances.  During 
the  entire  term  of  service  the  free  and  weapon  exercises  are  to  be  pursued  as  exercises 
for  the  promotion  of  the  soldier's  health.  .  In  the  course  of  every  hour  devoted  to 
gymnastics,  all  parts  of  the  body  are,  so  far  as  possible,  to  be  brought  equally  into 
play.  In  judging  of  the  excellence  of  the  exercise,  strength,  dexterity,  and  the  car- 
riage and  control  of  the  body  are  to  be  considered,  rather  than  the  difficulty  of  the 
exercise.  The  performance  of  gymnastic  tricks  and  feats  is  never  to  be  considered  the 
aim  of  the  exercises. 

707 


180  CIRCULAKS    OF   INFORMATION   FOR   1885. 

The  free  movements  are  those  which  aro  performed  without  the  aid  of  any  ap- 
paratus. They  lie  at  the  foundation  of  the  bodily  training  of  the  soldier,  both  as  re- 
gurds  drill  and  gymnastics.  They  are  the  especial  means  for  suppling  the  stifl' joints 
of  the  raw  recruit.  The  free  movements  are  to  be  arranged  in  groups,  so  that  head, 
arms,  back,  legs,  and  feet  shall  be  exercised  in  equal  measure.  Exercise  in  the  quick- 
step, 165  to  175  steps  in  the  minute,  are  included  in  the  free  movements. 

Weapon  exercises  (Geweliriibungen)  are  defined  as  exercises  in  which  the  musket  is 
used  for  the  further  development  of  the  soldier's  strength.  In  these  exercises  the 
musket  is  used  in  something  the  same  way  that  the  staff  or  wand  is  used  in  light 
gymnastics.  The  exercises  are  of  two  sorts— with  both  hands  and  with  one  hand, 
hi  the  one-hand  exercises  the  left  and  the  right  hands  must  bo  equally  taught. 

The  principal  machines  employed  in  the  Rustiibunfjen  (which  is  a  Liug-Rothsteiu 
word  for  the  Geratiibungen  of  the  turners)  are  the  horizontal  beam ;  the  spring-board ; 
the  cross-tree,  or  beam,  which  resembles  the  horizontal  bar ;  the  ladder-plank ;  the 
inclined  ladder ;  the  leaping-table  ;  the  vertical  ropes  and  poles,  for  climbing. 

lu  the  applied  military  gymnastics  the  soldiers  are  taught  to  leap  ditches  and  bar- 
riers, and  to  scale  walls,  fences,  and  stockades  of  various  kinds.  In  these  exercises 
the  men  carry  their  muskets  and  side  arms,  and  are  divided  into  larger  and  smaller 
squads,  which  are,  of  course,  required  to  keep  step  and  time  as  much  as  possible. 
These  exercises  are  very  useful,  and  by  no  means  easy  in  some  of  their  branches,  yet 
it  is  astonishing  to  a  civilian  to  witness  the  celerity,  precision,  and  certainty,  with 
which  a  squad  of  a  dozen  men  will  surmount  a  wall  or  a  high,  spiked  fence,  or  cross 
a  wide,  deep  ditch  on  a  narrow,  shaky  bridge. 

Rothstein,  in  his  account  of  the  Ceutralturnanstalt  published  in  1861,  describes 
the  "  obstructed  running  track  "  (Laufbalin  mil  Hindernissen')  in  which  the  pupils  of  the 
institute  were  exercised  in  "  applied  gymnastics."  The  track  was  U-sbaped,  195  paces 
long,  and  18  feet  broad.  The  obstructions  were  arranged  in  the  following  order :  (1) 
A  ditch  C  feet  wide,  for  the  running  leap  ;  (2)  a  mound  of  earth  3  feet  high  and  4 
feet  wide  at  the  base,  for  the  high  jump  ;  (3)  a  ditch  12  feet  wide,  for  the  long  leap  ; 
(4)  a  mound  6  feet  high  and  10  feet  wide  at  the  base,  on  the  edge  of  a  ditch  12  feet 
wide,  for  the  "deep  leap" ;  (5)  a  board  fence  5  feet  high,  to  be  vaulted  over ;  (6)  an 
"escalading  stage,"  12  feet  high  and  6  feet  wide  at  the  top.  to  be  climbed  by  ladders, 
ropes,  or  poles,  and  jumped  or  dropped  from  ;  (7)  a  ditch  10  feet  deep  and  9  feet  wide, 
with  an  escarpment  wall  rising  4  feet  above  the  hither  edge  of  the  ditch,  and  bridged 
by  a  shaky  beam ;  (8)  a  palisade  7  feet  high,  of  sharpened  planks  ;  and  (9)  a  glacis.  A 
section  of  twelve  men  in  three  ranks  of  four  files  each,  the  men  having  muskets,  side- 
arms,  and  knapsacks,  usually  made  the  entire  course  from*  end  to  end  in  three  to 
three  and  a  third  minutes.  Without  weapons  or  knapsacks,  four  men,  each  doing  his 
beat  to  outstrip  his  fellows,  usually  covered  the  course  in  sixty  to  seventy  seconds; 
while  a  few  individuals  were  able  to  cover  the  course  ii;  forty-three  to  forty-five 
seconds. 

The  following  extract  from  a  circular  on  the  teaching  of  gymnastics  in  the  ele- 
mentary schools,  addressed  to  the  superintendents  and  inspectors  of  schools  in  the 
district  of  Lieguitz,  province  of  Silesia,  in  1671,  by  the  section  for  church  and  school 
affairs,  may  serve  as  an  indication  of  the  esteem  in  which  turning  is  held  by  those 
most  concerned  with  educational  affairs  : 

It  is  acknowledged  everywhere  by  soldiers  and  civilians  that  the  astonishing  accom- 
plishments of  our  armies  in  the  late  war,  especially  their  thorough  discipline,  exhib- 
ited in  the  most  cheerful  and  Belf-sacrilicing  manner,  their  skill  in  overcoming  nat- 
ural and  artificial  obstacles  in  the  enemy's  country,  their  courage  and  calmness 
in  battle,  the  resolution  with  which  they  bore  pain  and  privation,  must,  in  a  large 
measure,  bo  attributed  to  the  gymnastic  training  of  the  rank  and  file. 

As  has  been  well  said,  "  Hardly  any  army  deserves  better  than  the  Prussian- 
German  the  name  Exercitus."  Prussia,  in  the  interval  between  Jena  and  Sedan,  de- 
monstrated most  clearly  and  strikingly  the  power  and  worth  of  comprehensive  and 
scientific  "training."  Even  the  English  are  beginning  to  doubt  the  infallibility  of 
the  -notion  of  which  they  have  been  so  fond,  "  that  you  come  to  do  a  thing  right  by 
7G3 


PHYSICAL    TRAINING    IN    AMERICAN    COLLEGES.  ,    181 

doing  it,  and  not  by  first  learning  to  do  it  right  and  then  doing  it."  It  is  a  conspic- 
uous merit  of  the  Prussian  scheme  of  national  education,  that  both  in  mental  and 
physical  training  little  or  nothing  is  left  to  the  rule  of  thumb. 

It  may  fairly  be  doubted  if  any  modern  nation  can  vie  with  Prussia  in  ability  to  mob- 
ilize its  strength ;  nor  can  it  be  doubted  that  her  system  of  physical  training  has 
proven  a  very  considerable  factor  in  developing  her  power  to  transform  her  potential 
energy  into  work. 

It  is  impossible  that  Prussian  turning,  reaching,  as  it  does,  nearly  a  fifth  of  the  en- 
tiro  population  of  the  kingdom,  through  the  instrumentalities  of  the  school,  the  army, 
and  the  Turnerschalt,  should  not  exercise  a  powerful  influence  upon  the  national  life 
and  development. 

A  belief  in  the  validity  of  Prussian  methods  has  led  to  a  more  or  less  general  and 
close  imitation  of  them  throughout  Germany.  And  France  has,  since  1870,  intro- 
duced gymnastic  training  into  the  plan  of  work  ordained  for  its  system  oi'  public 
schools. 

If  physical  training  should  ever  be  pursued  intelligently  and  systematically  in  the 
schools  of  any  American  State  or  city,  many  of  the  same  problems  with  which  the 
educational  authorities  in  Germany,  Switzerland,  Sweden,  and  France,  have  been  so 
deeply  engaged,  will  inevitably  present  themselves.  The  writer  is  far  from  thinking 
that  such  problems  can  be  satisfactorily  solved  by  the  attempted  introduction  of  any 
unmodified  foreign  system  of  gymnastics  or  athletics.  But  he  is  firmly  convinced  that 
whoever  may  be  impelled  or  called  upon  to  attempt  to  provide  an  adequate  remedy  for 
the  present  lamentable  neglect  of  physical  training  in  American  schools  and  colleges, 
can  readily  save  money,  time,  and  trouble,  if  they  will  but  study  the  German  system 
of  turning;  "for  there  can  be  no  doubt,"  to  borrow  the  words  of  Prof.  Du  Bois-Rey- 
mond,  "that  German  turning,  in  its  wise  mingling  of  theory  and  practice,  exhibits 
the  happiest,  yes,  the  most  adequate  solution  of  the  great  problem  with  which  peda-' 
gogics  has  been  busy  since  Rousseau,  a  truth  which,  after  a  short  obscurity,  is  now 
hardly  contested,  but  the  physiological  principle  of  which  a  few  are  beginning  to 
understand," 

THE  NORTH  AMRRICAN.TURNERBUND. 

The  largest  association  of  turners  in  the  world,  outside  of  the  Deutsche  Turnerscbaft, 
is  that  formed  by  the  German  gymnastic  societies  of  the  United  States,  under  the 
name  of  the  North  American  Gymnastic  Union,  or  Turnerbund.  The  aims  of  the  Tur- 
nerbund  are  most  gloriously  broad  and  general.  The  solo  and  simple  end  of  its  mem- 
bers is  "  to  aid  each  other  in  rearing  a  people  stroug  in  both  body  and  mind."  As  a 
means  to  the  furtherance  of  this  end,  the  framers  of  the  platform  and  statutes  of  the 
Turnerbuud,  which  were  adopted  at  its  national  convention  held  at  Davenport,  Iowa, 
in  1884,  pronounce  in  favor  of  "  a  thorough  reform  of  social,  religious,  and  political 
life." 

The  maxims  and  demands  expressed  in  the  declaration  of  principles  of  the  Turner- 
bund  are  held  "  to  form  the  programme  for  the  realization  of  a  system  of  pure  popular 
sovereignty,"  under  which  "  not  only  everything  should  be  done  for  the  people,  but  also 
by  the  people."  This  programme  seems  to  us  so  fantastic,  so  impracticable,  so  entirely 
irrelevant  to  the  legitimate  purposes  of  a  "gymnastic  union,"  that  we  shall  content 
ourselves  with  the  bare  mention  of  a  very  few  of  its  main  features,  and  confine  our 
attention  chiefly  to  the  field  of  practical  endeavor,  in  which  the  Turnerbuud  has 
achieved  substantial  and  really  commendable  results. 

The  officers  and  members  of  the  gymnastic  union  are  "earnestly  admonished"  to 
make  snch  propositions  as  follow,  the  subject  "of  special  and  thorough  discussion"; 
"  Senate  and  Presidency  are  but  copies  of  monarchical  institutions,  being  undemo- 
cratic and  uurepubljcan,  and  should  be  abolished."  The  general  convention  of  the  gym- 
nastic union  recommends,  "as  proper  means  of  relieving  public  distress  and  of  amelio- 
rating social  conditions,  the  protection  of  labor  against  spoliation,  and  securing  to 

709 


182  CIRCULARS    OF    INFORMATION    FOR    1885. 

it  the  real  product  thereof ;  sanitary  protection  of  citizens  ;  a  prohibition  of  the  abuse 
of  employing  the  labor  of  children  for  industrial  purposes  ;  a  cessation  of  all  further 
land  grants  or  sales  to  individuals  and  corporations;  free  instruction  to  everybody ; 
a  progressive  income  tax,  and  a  legacy  or  succession  duty  or  tax  ;  abolition  of  all 
monopolies  ;  a  thorough  reform  of  our  judicial  system  ;  the  abolition  of  all  indirect 
taxation." 

The  practical  aims  of  the  Turnerbund  are  well  set  forth  in  sections  21  to  23,  inclu- 
sive, of  its  statutes.  They  read  as  follows : 

21.  It  is  one  of  the  chief  aims  of  the  gymnastic  societies,  and  of  the  gymnastic 
union,  to  labor  for  the  intr eduction  of  systematic  gymnastic  training  into  the  exist- 
ing schools,  since  such  training  is  indispensable  to  the  thorough  education  of  the 
young. 

2<J.  It  is  therefore  obligatory  upon  the  gymnastic  societies  to  see  that  their  gym- 
nastic exercises  are  conducted  according  to  rational  principles,  and  to  take  special 
care  to  employ  only  such  persons  as  teachers  of  gymnastics,  supervisors  of  exercises 
(Turuwarte),  and  leaders  of  practice  sections  (Vorturner)  as  are  thoroughly  qualified 
to  understand  and  teach  gymnastics  in  harmony  with  those  principles. 

It  is  furthermore  the  duty  of  the  societies  to  labor  in  their  own  sphere  for  the  es- 
tablishment and  perfection  of  good  German-English  schools,  in  which  music,  singing, 
drawing,  and  gymnastics  receive  full  attention,  and  to  work  in  favor  of  compulsory 
school  attendance ;  and  lastly  to  take  pains  to  have  the  German  language  taught  in 
the  public  schools. 

23.  It,  is  obligatory  upon  the  societies  to  provide  for  the  further  education  of  their 
members  by  arranging  for  instructive  addresses,  lectures,  or  discussions  once  a 
month  ;  and  such  topics  chiefly  shall  be  selected  for  this  purpose  as  relate  to  the  res- 
olutions or  principles  of  the  gymnastic  union. 

In  January,  1885,  the  North  American  Tumerbund  consisted  of  213  vereine,  with 
a  total  membership  of  21,809,  an  increase  of  2,096  over  the  previous  year.  In  the 
Turuschuleu  of  the  Bund,  12,228  boys  and  4,005  girls  received  instruction  in  gymnas- 
tics during  the  year  1884-'85.  The  Turnschulen,  which  are  maintained  by  the  turn- 
vereine,  have  come  very  generally  into  vogue  within  the  last  ten  years.  They  have 
been  established  for  the  purpose  of  securing  to  the  children  of  German  and  German- 
American  parents  instruction  in  the  German  language  and  literature,  as  well  as  in 
the  ordinary  branches  of  a  common  school  education  and  gymnastics.  Very  fre- 
quently the  children  attend  a  public  school  and  a  Turuschule  at  the  same  time,  the 
session  of  the  latter  being  held  after  the  completion  of  the  daily  session  of  the  pub- 
lic school.  The  gymnastic  (societies  in  many  of  the  larger  cities,  like  New  York,  Chi- 
cago, Saint  Louis,  Milwaukee,  and  San  Francisco,  have  dramatic,  musical,  and  art 
sections.  The  New  York  Turuverein,  for  instance,  supports  an  evening  art  school, 
with  classes  in  drawing  and  modeling. 

The  Turnerbund  owned  property  worth  $2,409,375  in  1885.  This  represented  a  total 
indebtedness  of  only  $840,427.  Its  Turnhallen  (gymnasia)  numbered  140,  an  increase 
of  13  over  the  previous  year.  Its  trained  and  salaried  teachers  of  gymnastics  num- 
bered 98. 

The  teachers  of  gymnastics  receive  their  special  professional  training  in  the  Turn 
lehrer  Seminar.  The  gymnastic  aims  and  methods  of  the  Turnerbund  and  its  teachers 
are  closely  modeled  after  tho^e  which  obtain  in  Germany.  The  Turnlehrer  Seminal 
is,  in  the  writer's  opinion,  the  best  normal  school  for  teachers  of  gymnastics  in  the 
United  States.  It  has  for  some  years  had  its  headquarters  at  Milwaukee,  Wis.,  and 
been  under  the  charge  of  Director  G.  Brosins.  It  was  formerly  located  in  Chicago, 
and  still  earlier  in  New  York. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  that  a  grandson  of  "  Father  Jahn"  is  one  of  the  eighteen 
pupils  who  constitute  this  year's  class  atthe  Milwaukee  Seminar.  Jahn's  son  has  lived 
in  poverty  and  obscurity  for  many  years  in  Baltimore,  Md.  Ho  receives  ao.aun.ual  sti- 
pend from  the  Turnerbund,  which  has  adopted  his  son,  the  youth  above  referred  to, 
as  its  foster  child. 

The  course  of  instruction  given  in  Milwaukee  approximates,  on  the  whole,  so  nearly 
in  character  to  that  of  the  Turnlohrerbildungsaustalt  in  Berlin  that  it  is  .unneces- 
710 


PHYSICAL    TRAINING    IN    AMERICAN    COLLEGES.  183 

sary  to  characterize  it  further.     Graduates  of  the  Seminar  are  now  required  to  speak 
and  read  English. 

Thus  far  the  Turnerhund  has  made  but  little  progress  toward  bringing  about  the 
introduction  of  gymnastic  instruction  into  the  public  schools.  Meager  results,  not 
worth  mentioning  in  comparison  with  what  may  be  observed  in  almost  any  German 
city,  have  been  attained  in  the  cities  of  Milwaukee,  Saint  Louis,  and  Cleveland, 
where  feeble  experiments  in  giving  instruction  in  calisthenics  have  been  made. 

It  is  nearly  a  year  since  the  committee  on  course  of  study  and  school  books  of  the 
board  of  education  of  the  city  of  New  York  voted  in  favor  of  testing  a  plan,  which 
emanated  from  the  Turnerbund,  for  the  introduction  of  gymnastic  training  into  the 
public  schools  of  that  city.  It  was  voted  to  furnish  three  schools  with  gymnastic  ap- 
pliances at  a  cost  not  exceeding  $94  for  each  school,  and  that  "  an  instructor  be  em- 
ployed, at  a  salary  of  not  more  than  $50  per  month,  to  take  charge  of  these  schools  for 
one  year,  under  the  direction  of  the  city  superintendent  as  to  time,  etc."  As  it  was 
found  that  the  committee  had  no  right  to  vote  an  appropriation,  physical  training  in 
the  New  York  public  schools  remains  in  the  same  unsatisfactory  condition  in  which 
it  was  before  the  vote  was  passed. 

No  city  or  town  can  secure  physical  training  to  its  schoolchildren  unless  it  provide 
gymnasia  and  specially  trained  and  well-paid  teachers.  A  salary  of  $50  per  month, 
we  need  hardly  add,  will  not  secure  competent  teachers  of  gymnastics ;  and  without 
competent  teachers  gymnasia  are  useless,  or  worse  than  useless. 

The  Turnerbund  owns  more  gymnasia  than  do  all  the  colleges  of  the  country  taken 
together,  and  its  corps  of  teachers  of  gymnastics  is  made  up  of  the  best  the  country 
affords  ;  yet  the  aims,  methods,  and  achievements  of  the  Turnerbund  are  almost  un- 
known to  the  mass  of  men  and  women  engaged  in  the  education  of  American  children. 
One  would  think  from  the  utterances  of  some  of  the  prophets  and  disciples  of  "  physi- 
cal culture"  that  the  field  of  bodily  education  was  white  for  the  harvest.  Such  facts 
as  those  above  cited  seem  to  us  to  indicate  that  the  field  is  only  here  and  there  ready 
for  the  sowing  of  seed. 

711 


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